Chemistry Of The Elements In The Periodic Table PDF

CHEMISTRY OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE Group Properties of Elements  PERIODS & GROUPS ▪ Period horizontal row there are 7 periods in the periodic tabl arranged in increasing atomic numbe...

CHEMISTRY OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE Group Properties of Elements  PERIODS & GROUPS ▪ Period horizontal row there are 7 periods in the periodic tabl arranged in increasing atomic numbe ▪ Family/Grou vertical rows elements in a group have similar chemical propertie Group A (occupying the s and p – block) are called representative elements; whereas Group B elements (occupying the d-block) are called transition metal groups. s - - - p - - s s r e GROUPS OF ELEMENTS ▪ Group VIIIA/ Inert gase ▪ Group I Alkali Metal ▪ Group II Alkaline earth metal ▪ Group VI Chalcogen ▪ Group VII Halogen ▪ Group I Coinage Metal ▪ Group II Volatile Metals A B A B A A 0 : : : : : : : s s s s s s ▪ Transition elements – those elements in which a d- orbital is filled partially, starting at Group IIIB and ending at Group IIB ▪ Lanthanides and Actinides – inner transition metal ▪ Metallic elements are protein precipitants, the major exception being the alkali metals. Being protein precipitants, metals especially heavy metals are toxic ▪ Amphoteric – equally acidic and basic. s. BRIDGE ELEMENTS ▪ Diagonals/Bridge elements – 1st member of the family can be quite unlike to the other members. It more closely resembles the second member of the adjacent group to the right. IONIZATION ENERGY ▪ Ionization Potential – measure of the energy required to remove an electron by overcoming the attractive forces of the nucleus. ▪ Metals - ↓ IP , readily form cation ▪ Non- metals - ↑IP s  ELECTRONEGATIVITY ▪ Electronegativity – Attraction of the nucleus for an electron. Metals - ↓ electronegativity, thus electropositiv Nonmetals - ↑ electronegativity especially halogen - attract additional electrons to form anions e s GROUP VIIIA/ 0 ELEMENTS Noble Gases Group VIIIA/ 0 Elements ▪ All noble gases except Rn occur in the atmosphere ▪ Ar, Ne, Kr, and Xe are produced from liquid air by fractional distillation ▪ Radon is recovered from the natural decay products of radium ▪ The inert gases are monoatomic, colorless, and odourless ▪ Inert gases, except helium, follows the octet rule.....  HELIUM ▪ 2nd most lightest gas (low density and solubility ▪ It is chemically inert. It does not support combustio ▪ Toxicity (inhalation): Donald duck-like soun ▪ Use: ▪ Carrier/diluent for medically important gases ▪ Component of artificial gas (80 parts He, 20 parts O2) ▪ Container: Brown d ) n NEON ▪ Aka: “New ▪ Used in advertising ” ARGON ▪ Aka: “Lazy ▪ Most abundant and most widely distributed among all noble gases ▪ By-product of the fractionalization of liquid air for the production of oxygen and nitrogen ▪ Substitute of nitrogen in providing inert atmosphere ▪ It is used to prevent the blackening of light bulbs. ”... KRYPTON ▪ Aka: “Hidden ▪ Least abundant among noble gase ▪ Have inhalational anesthetic activity ▪ The sparsity of these elements in nature imposes severe limitations on such use. ” s. XENON ▪ Aka: “Stranger ▪ Investigational with inhalational anesthetic activity ▪ Both Kr and Xe has fairly high lipid solubilit ▪ Xenon is virtually equal with ethylene in terms of anesthetic activity. ” y. RADON ▪ Aka: “Niton ▪ Synthetic noble ga ▪ Used in the treatment of cervical cance ▪ It emits alpha particle ▪ Recovered from the natural decay products of Radium ” s s r GROUP IA ELEMENTS Alkali Metals Group IA Elements ▪ Comprises the most reactive of all the metallic elements (never found in nature in pure form). ▪ ↑ activity with increasing atomic number (Cs>K>Na) ▪ Hydroxides give alkaline solutions (alkalinity increases with increasing atomic number). ▪ Degree of solvation decreases with increasing atomic number. ▪ Have low melting points. ▪ Stable chemically; does not form complexes. Group IA Elements ▪ Alkali metal salts of inorganic acids (ex. NaCl, KCl, KBr) are ionic, usually colorless and soluble in water ▪ Aqueous solutions of the alkali metal salts are neutral to basic ▪ Most distinguishing properties of the salts and their solutions are due to the anion present. (e.g. color ▪ Only lithium and sodium salts are regularly hydrated in crystalline form. (ex. Li2B4O7.3H2O (Lithium borate)). ). HYDROGEN ▪ Aka: ________________ ai ▪ Lightest elemen ▪ Isotopes ▪ Protium – most abundant ▪ Deuterium – heavy hydrogen ▪ Tritium – radioactive : t r LITHIUM ▪ Aka: “Earth” ▪ Lightest of all metals ▪ Bridge element (resembles Mg, to some extent Ca, more closely than Na) ▪ Pharmacological action: ▪ Depressant ▪ Diuretic ▪ Non-Pharmacological action: ▪ Heat-exchanger in aircons LITHIUM ▪ Free metal forms are less reactive with water ▪ Burning it forms the normal oxide (Li2O ▪ Li2CO3 and Li3PO4 are slightly water soluble ▪ LiCl is soluble to organic solvent ▪ Li has no physiological role and is toxic. s ).. LITHIUM ▪ Important compounds ▪ Lithium bromide – depressant ▪ Lithium carbonate (Lithase®) ▪ DOC for ___________ : SODIUM ▪ Aka: “Natrium ▪ Most abundant extracellular catio ▪ Used with caution in the treatment of cardiac and renal condition in which edema is a problem ▪ Cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical utility of organic medicaments ▪ Na compounds are widely used in pharmacy and medicine (ex. NaCl); sodium salts are selected more frequently due to economic basis. ”. n. SODIUM ▪ IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS ▪ Sodium acetate (CH3COONa ▪ Diuretic ▪ Urinary and systemic alkalize ▪ Antacid ▪ Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 ▪ Aka: “Baking Soda” Side effects: a. Systemic Alkalosis ▪ Systemic antacid b. Rebound Hyperacidity ▪ Carbonating agent c. Edema r ) : ) SODIUM ▪ Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4) ▪ Aka: “Fleet Enema” ▪ Uses: (a) Cathartic; (b) Source of phosphate ion ▪ Sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3) ▪ water-soluble antioxidant (preservative) ▪ Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) ▪ Aka: Soda ash (anhydrous form); Trona (dihydrate form); Washing soda, soda crystals or sal soda (decahydrate form). ▪ Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Source of carbonate ion; (c) Carbonating agent SODIUM ▪ Sodium chloride (NaCl ▪ Aka: rock salt, table salt, soler salt ▪ Uses: ▪ Electrolyte replenisher (to prevent or treat dehydration) ▪ Examples: ▪ NSS (0.9% NaCl) ▪ Ringer’s Solution – NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 ▪ Lactated Ringer’s Solution (Hartmann’s Solution) – NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, Sodium lactate ▪ Tonicity adjusting agent ▪ Condiment ▪ Preservative ) SODIUM ▪ Sodium citrate (Na3C6H5O7 ▪ Uses: ▪ Alkalinize ▪ Buffer (resists changes in pH) ▪ Diuretic ▪ Expectorant ▪ Anticoagulant ▪ Sequestering Agent in Benedict’s Solution ▪ Sodium fluoride (NaF ▪ Uses: Anticariogenic (2% solution) r ) ) SODIUM ▪ Sodium iodide (NaI) ▪ Uses: (a) Expectorant; (b) Antifungal; (c) Iodine solubilizer ▪ Sodium lactate ▪ Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Diuretic ▪ Sodium nitrite (NaNO2) ▪ Treatment of cyanide poisoning ▪ Antioxidant ▪ Used to preserve the red color or meat ▪ Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) ▪ Aka: “Chile Salt Peter” ▪ Use/s: Meat preservative; Vasodilator SODIUM ▪ Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) ▪ Aka: “Glauber’s salt” – a decahydrate ▪ Use: Cathartic ▪ Sodium tartrate (Na2C4H4O6) ▪ Use: Primary standard for Karl-Fischer reagent for _____________________ ▪ Sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) ▪ Hypotensive agent ▪ Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) ▪ Aka: Hypochlor, Photographer’s hypo ▪ Use/s: Treatment of cyanide poisoning with sodium nitrite POTASSIUM ▪ Aka: “Kalium” ▪ Most abundant intracellular cation ▪ K salts are generally less deliquescent compared to Na salts ▪ Pharmacologic action: ▪ Diuretic ▪ Important in muscular contraction ▪ Deficiency: Hypokalemia – due to excessive loss of body fluids and electrolytes which causes muscular paralysis. ▪ Sources: Avocado, Banana POTASSIUM ▪ IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS ▪ Potassium acetate (CH3COOK ▪ Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Diuretic; (c) Urinary and systemic alkalize ▪ Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3 ▪ Uses: (a) Sytemic antacid; (b) Carbonating agent; (c) Source of bicarbonate ion ▪ Potassium bitartrate (KHC4H4O6 ▪ Aka: Cream of tartar, creamo ▪ Use: Laxative r ) ) ) : r POTASSIUM ▪ Potassium bromide (KBr ▪ Uses: ▪ Depressant ▪ Used in the preparation of samples for infrared analysis ▪ Potassium carbonate (K2CO3 ▪ Aka: Potash, perlash, salt of peter ▪ Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Carbonating agent; (c) Source of carbonate ion ▪ Potassium chlorate (KClO ▪ Uses: (a) oxidizing agent; (b) component in toothpastes, gargles and mouthwash; (c) has deodorant action ) ) ) POTASSIUM ▪ Potassium chloride (KCl ▪ Aka: “Kalium chloratum” ▪ Uses: Electrolyte replenisher (Note: Should be infused slowly. Used in lethal injections and is irritating to the GI tract) ▪ Potassium citrat ▪ Uses: (a) Diuretic; (b) Expectorant; (c) Diaphoretic ▪ Potassium hydroxide (KOH ▪ Aka: Caustic potash, lye potash ▪ Use: Saponifying agent used in the preparation of soft or liquid soap. e ) ) POTASSIUM ▪ Potassium iodide (KI ▪ Aka: “Kalium jodatum” ▪ Uses: ▪ Expectorant (due to iodine ion) ▪ Used in the treatment of goite ▪ Antifungal and Iodine solubilize ▪ Potassium nitrate (KNO3 ▪ Aka: salt peter, salt prunelle, salitr ▪ Uses: Diuretic and meat preservative ) r r ) e POTASSIUM ▪ Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) ▪ Aka: “Mineral chameleon” ▪ Uses: ▪ Oxidizing agent ▪ Antiseptic (0.02%) ▪ Treatment for strychnine poisoning ▪ Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) ▪ Uses: Cathartic ▪ Potassium sodium tartrate (KNaC4H4O6) ▪ Aka: Rochelle salt, sal signette ▪ Uses: (a) cathartic; (b) sequestering agent for Fehling’s solution POTASSIUM ▪ Potassium thiocyanate (KSCN ▪ Use: Hypotensive agent ▪ Sulfurated potas ▪ Aka: Liver of sulfur, heparis sulfuri ▪ It is a mixture of potassium sulfide, potassium polysulfide and potassium thiosulfate ▪ Used in the preparation of white lotio ▪ Used as a parasiticide and treatment of acne and scabies h s ) n CESIUM and RUBIDIUM ▪ CESIUM: ▪ Catalyst in the polymerization of resin ▪ No pharmaceutical significance ▪ CsCl – used in density gradient centrifugation ▪ RUBIDIUM: ▪ Rubidium and its cation are very similar in behaviour to potassium. ▪ Rb and Cs has no application in pharmacy and medicine at this time. AMMONIUM ▪ Hypothetical alkali meta ▪ Conjugate base of ammoni ▪ Pharmacologic action ▪ Diuretic ▪ Buffer ▪ Expectorant (like _______________) ▪ Anti-cariogenic (like ______________) : l a  AMMONIUM ▪ NH3 coordinated readily with a proton to form the NH4+ ▪ Resembles ▪ Ammonium reacts with bases to liberate NH3 ▪ Ammonium salts of bitartrate, chlorplatinate and perchlorate are insoluble in water ▪ Ammonium hydroxide – solution of ammonia in water. It is basic ▪ Solutions of ammonium salts are acidic. (ex. NH4Cl) 1. K. AMMONIUM ▪ Pharmacologic category of ammonium ion ▪ Acid-base equilibrium of the body ▪ Diuretic ▪ Expectorant ▪ Anticariogeni ▪ Ammonia is used as a urinary alkalize ▪ Ammonia is a volatile substance c r : AMMONIUM ▪ IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS ▪ Ammonium bromide (NH4Br ▪ Use: Sedative depressant ▪ Ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3 ▪ Aka: sal volatile, hartshorn, preston salt, baker’s ammonia ▪ Use: ▪ Expectorant – stimulate the flow of respiratory secretions. Mild emetics can be used as an expectorant. ▪ Antacid ▪ Respiratory stimulant ) : ) AMMONIUM ▪ Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) ▪ Aka: Muriate of hartshorn ▪ Use: ▪ Expectorant ▪ Diuretic ▪ Urinary acidifier ▪ Aromatic Ammonia Spirit ▪ Aka: spirit of sal volatile, spirit of hartshorn ▪ A mixture of ammonium carbonate and strong ammonia solution ▪ Used as a respiratory stimulant (to revive unconscious patients who have fainted). AMMONIUM ▪ HgNH2C ▪ Aka: white precipitate ▪ Use: topical anti-infectiv ▪ Ammonium iodide (NH4I ▪ Uses: ▪ Source of iodide ▪ Expectorant ▪ Antifungal ▪ Ammonium acetate (NH4CH3COO ▪ Aka: Spirit of minderesu ▪ Use: Styptic l e s ) ) GROUP IB ELEMENTS Coinage Metals Group IB Elements ▪ Can occur in free metal stat ▪ These metals are very malleable ▪ The hydroxides and salts of these metals are insoluble in water ▪ Central units of chelates/complexes. e.  Comparison of Group IA and IB Metals Properties Alkali Metals Coinage Metals Occurrence Not free in nature Free in nature and are easily recovered from their compounds by reduction Chemical reactivity Very reactive chemically Not very reactive; can be displaced easily by other metals Properties of oxides and hydroxides Strongly basic Weakly basic except for Ag2O Number of valence electrons Univalent Univalent for Ag, multivalent for Cu and Au Ion formation Simple cation (not in complex In complex anions and complex anions) & not complex cations with cations with ammonia ammonia Oxidation potential Rapidly oxidize in air Copper slowly oxidizes in air but may be oxidized rapidly in finely divided state or when heated with oxygen COPPER ▪ Aka: “Cuprum” ▪ Only reddish metal ▪ Component of hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase ▪ 3rd most malleable metal and 3rd best conductor of electricity ▪ 2 important alloys: ▪ Brass (Cu and Zn) and Bronze (Cu and Sn) ▪ Pharmacologic actions: ▪ Protein precipitant ▪ Enhances the physiological utilization of iron ▪ Toxicity: Wilson’s disease (Antidote: Penicillamine) COPPER ▪ Cu is an essential trace element ▪ Cu enhances the physiological utilization of iron ▪ Cu induces emesis Other external uses of Cu ▪ It occurs in the respiratory pigment, compounds: Fungicide hemocyanin and many enzymes. Insecticide Algaecide Astringent Bacteriostatic Pediculocide... COPPER ▪ IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: ▪ Cupric sulfate (CuSO4. 5H2O) ▪ Aka: blue vitriol, blue stone ▪ Uses: Component of benedict’s solution, barfoed’s reagent and fehling’s reagent ▪ Antidote for phosphorus poisoning ▪ Increases hematinic activity if added with iron ▪ Ingredient of Bordeaux mixture (used as a fungicide) ▪ Copper acetoarsenate ([Cu3(AsO3)2. Cu(C2H3O2)2]) ▪ Aka: Paris green ▪ Use: Insecticide SILVER ▪ Aka: “Argentum”, Shining brigh ▪ It has an oligodynamic actio ▪ Ag has the ability to precipitate proteins (ex. silver nitrate ▪ Toxicity: Argyria (esp. from soluble silver salts ▪ Antidote: NSS (Normal Saline Solution) ) n t ) SILVER ▪ Most Ag+1 are insoluble or slightly soluble in water ▪ Ag compounds are light sensitive and they must be stored in light-resistant bottles ▪ Ag ion readily reduces to elemental silver ▪ Ag can be used as an astringent, antiseptic, corrosive and protein precipitant.... SILVER ▪ IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: ▪ A. Soluble Compounds ▪ Silver nitrate (AgNO3) ▪ Aka: Lapiz infernulariz, lunar caustic, indelible ink, caustic pencil ▪ Uses: ▪ Treatment for warts ▪ Eye antiseptic for newborn babies of mothers with gonorrhoea (1% solution) ▪ Wet dressing for 3rd degree burns (0.5%) ▪ Ammoniacal silver nitrate (Ag(NH3)2NO3) ▪ Uses: ▪ Dental protective ▪ Ingredient for tollen’s reagent (test for the presence of aldehydes) SILVER ▪ B. Insoluble Compounds ▪ Silver iodide (AgI) ▪ Uses: poisonous and germicide ▪ Ag proteinate ▪ Mild Ag proteinate ▪ Aka: Argyrol ▪ Use: Antiseptic for the eye (10 - 23/25% Ag) ▪ Strong Ag proteinate ▪ Aka: Protargol ▪ Use: Strong germicide for ears and throat (7.5 - 8.5% Ag) ▪ Colloidal Ag proteinate ▪ Aka: Colargol ▪ Use: Used as a general germicide (18 - 22% Ag) GOLD ▪ Aka: “Aurum”, shining dawn, king of all metal ▪ Most malleable and most ductil ▪ Best conductor of electricit ▪ Gold toxicity: Gold dermatitis (Antidote: Dimercaprol ▪ Dissolved by ▪ Aqua regia (3 parts HCl + 1 part of HNO3) ▪ Selenic acid ▪ Bromine water ▪ Chlorine water : y e s ) GOLD ▪ Two series of gold compounds exist: Au+1 & Au+3 ▪ Au salts are unstable in heat and light; and are mild reducing agents ▪ Au compounds should be dispensed separately since it is a reducing agent ▪ Au+1 undergoes autooxidation to Au+3 ▪ Uses of Au compounds: Treatment of SLE and RA.. GOLD ▪ IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: ▪ Aurothioglucose (IM) ▪ Treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis ▪ Gold Na thiomalate (IM) ▪ Treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis ▪ Auranofin (PO) ▪ Treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis *Au 198 – radioactive Au used in the treatment of some malignancies GROUP IIA ELEMENTS Alkaline Earth Metals Group IIA Elements ▪ Group IIA is also known as Alkaline earth metals ▪ They are chemically active, does not occur in nature ▪ Oxidation state is + ▪ Are strong reducing agents (not as strong as Group IA elements ▪ Ca, Sr, Ba react with water to form hydroxides with the evolution of H. ) 2.. Group IIA Elements ▪ Chemical activity increases as atomic radius increases ▪ Elements are strictly metallic except for amphoteric beryllium ▪ Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2 are strongly basic ▪ Be(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are insoluble in water ▪ The carbonates, phosphates, sulfates and fluorides are insoluble in water..... BERYLLIUM ▪ Be is amphoteri ▪ Be is a bridge element, resembles Al ▪ Be compounds are extremely toxic ▪ Never employed in medicine as a therapeutic agent because it is the most toxic metal ▪ Use: Found in fluorescent lamps c... MAGNESIUM ▪ Magnesium is the major physiologic ion found in chlorophyll ▪ It is the second most abundant intracellular cation in the cell ▪ Lightest of all structurally important metal ▪ Has a powerful anesthetic effect ▪ A natural calcium channel blocker – important in many cardiovascular diseases.... MAGNESIUM ▪ Some Mg compounds are employed as an antacid. [Examples: Mg(OH)2, MgCO3 ▪ Mg(OH)2 and MgSO4 are cathartics ▪ MgSO4 is an anticonvulsant ▪ Concentrated MgSO4 is used as a topical anti- inflammatory agent... ] MAGNESIUM ▪ Natural sources ▪ As silicates: talc and asbestos ▪ As carbonates: magnesite and dolomite ▪ As sulfates: Keiserite : MAGNESIUM ▪ Pharmacologic action ▪ Laxative ▪ Depressant ▪ Natural Ca-channel blocker ▪ Antidote for magnesium toxicity: Ca gluconate (IV) : MAGNESIUM ▪ Important compounds: ▪ Magnesium carbonate [MgCO3] ▪ Aka: Magnesia ▪ Uses: Antacid and Laxative ▪ Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] ▪ Aka: Milk of magnesia, magnesia magma ▪ Uses: Antacid and laxative ▪ Magnesium oxide [MgO] ▪ Aka: Calcined magnesia ▪ Uses: Antacid, laxative and component of __________ MAGNESIUM ▪ Magnesium sulfate [MgSO4 ▪ Aka: Epsom salt ▪ Magnesium sulfate heptahydrat ▪ Uses: Cathartic (PO), anticonvulsant (IM), antidote for Ba toxicity ▪ Magnesium citrat ▪ Aka: Lemonada purganti, purgative lemon ▪ Use: Laxative e e ]  MAGNESIUM ▪ Hydrated magnesium silicate [2MgO.4SiO2. H 2O ▪ Aka: Talc, soapstone, French chalk ▪ Softest mineral known ▪ Uses: ▪ Dusting powder ▪ Filtering aid and clarifying agent ▪ Adsorbent ▪ 27Mg, an artificial radioactive isotope, has been used in research involving photosynthesis. ]  CALCIUM ▪ 2nd most abundant cation in the extracellular fluid ▪ Vitamin D is needed for its maximum absorption ▪ This element is indispensable in life and is the cation of hydroxyapatite, the major constituent of bones and teeth... CALCIUM ▪ Ca is a reactive metal whose cation is stable ▪ Ca salts undergo metathesis with borates, carbonates, citrates, oxalates, phosphates, sulfates and tartrates to yield insoluble compounds ▪C a i s t h e c a t i o n o f c h o i c e t o c a r r y therapeutically active anions (ex. Ca aminosalicylates and Ca cyclobarbital).. CALCIUM ▪ Therapeutic categories represented by official calcium compounds are as antacid, electrolyte replenisher and calcium supplementation ▪ Artificial 45Ca isotope has been employed in studies involving mineral metabolism.. CALCIUM ▪ Pharmacologic action: ▪ Blood coagulation factor ▪ Important in muscular contraction ▪ Important in the release of neurotransmitters ▪ Primary element of bones and teeth (for bone mineralization) ▪ Deficiency state: ▪ Osteoporosis ▪ Osteomalacia ▪ Rickets ▪ Hypocalcemia CALCIUM ▪ Important compounds: ▪ Calcium bromide [CaBr2] ▪ Use: Sedative/depressant ▪ Calcium carbonate [CaCO3] ▪ Aka: Precipitated chalk, prepared chalk ▪ Uses: Antacid, ingredient of toothpastes and dentifrices ▪ Calcium chloride [CaCl2] ▪ Aka: Muriate of lime ▪ Use: Calcium replenisher CALCIUM ▪ Calcium gluconat ▪ Use: Ca supplement and replenishe ▪ Treatment of choice of hypocalcemia (CaCl2 is irritating to the veins and GIT) ▪ Calcium hypochlorite (CaClO ▪ Aka: Chlorinated lime, chloride of lime ▪ Use: Disinfectant, bleaching agent ▪ Calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2 ▪ Aka: Bone ash ▪ Use: Source of Ca and P e ) ] r CALCIUM ▪ Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] ▪ Aka: Slaked lime, hydrated lime, milk of lime ▪ Uses: Antacid, saponifying agent ▪ Calcium oxide [CaO] ▪ Aka: lime, quicklime, calx ▪ Uses: Component of Bordeaux mixture (algicide/ fungicide) and as insecticide. ▪ Calcium sulfate [CaSO4] ▪ Aka: Plaster of paris (as hemihydrate), gypsum (as dihydrate) ▪ Uses: Rodenticide, used in preparation of surgical casts and dental impressions. STRONTIUM ▪ Seldom used therapeuticall ▪ Used in the manufacture of flare ▪ Important compound ▪ Strontium chloride [SrCl2 ▪ Used as a desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®) : ] y s BARIUM ▪ The most active in Group II ▪ Also known as “Heavy ▪ Its cation is stabl ▪ All barium compounds that are soluble in water are poisonous ▪ Toxicity: Baritosi ▪ Antidote for Ba poisoning is Epsom salt.. s e ” A BARIUM ▪ Important compounds ▪ Barium hydroxide [Ba(OH)2 ▪ Used as a carbon dioxide absorbent ▪ Barium sulfate [BaSO4 ▪ A radiopaque agent employed as a contrast medium in diagnostic procedures (for GIT imaging) : ] ] RADIUM ▪ Discovered by Marie Curi ▪ A radioactive element used for cancer chemotherapy and for diagnostic purposes e GROUP IIB ELEMENTS Volatile Metals Group IIB Elements ▪ Members of this group are zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) ▪ They are called volatile metals because members of this group have low boiling points ▪ The common oxidation states among these metals is +2... Group IIB Elements ▪ They are less active than Group IIA elements and tend to form covalent compounds. ▪ Basicity increases with an increase in ionic radius, with mercuric oxide as the most basic and zinc oxide being soluble in alkali (this property of dissolving in basic solution always decreases in the groups with increasing atomic number ▪ The chlorides are hydrolyzed with decreasing ease in the order Zn > Cd > Hg.. Group IIB Elements ▪ Cadmium and zinc form complex ions easily but cadmium has a stronger tendency than Zn ▪ Mercury does not readily enter into complex formations ▪ Hg can be +1 (mercurous) and +2 (mercuric ▪ Solubility is quite similar to Group IIA elements... ) ZINC ▪ Is an essential trace elemen ▪ Present in all living organism, it is thus widely distributed in food ▪ Metal present in insulin and is a component of carbonic anhydrase ▪ Zn is used in the treatment of various external conditions in the body (antiperspirant, astringent, protectant and antiseptic)... t ZINC ▪ Zn compounds that are soluble in water may be poisonous (ex. ZnO, also known as zincite). Treatment is baking soda ▪ Other uses ▪ Container of batteries ▪ Protective coating for galvanized iron ▪ Deficiency: Parakeratosis (treatment: NaHCO3) :. ZINC ▪ Important compounds ▪ Zinc chloride [ZnCl2 ▪ Aka: Burnett’s disinfectant fluid ▪ Uses: disinfectant/antiseptic/precipitating germicide and dentin desensitizer (D/A: but is corrosive) ▪ Zinc oxide [ZnO ▪ Aka: Zinc white, Lassar’s paste ▪ Uses: Antiseptic, astringent and topical protectant ▪ Zinc-eugenol cement – dental protective ] ] : ZINC ▪ Zinc sulfide [ZnS ▪ Aka: white sulfid ▪ Active ingredient in white lotio ▪ Uses: parasiticide, topical protectant and antiseptic ▪ Zinc sulfate [ZnSO4.7H2O ▪ Aka: white vitriol ▪ Uses: Emetic, astringent and pharmaceutical necessity in the preparation of white lotion ▪ Strong ZnSO4 (also known as zincosite) is an emetic (agent used to induce vomiting). e ] ] n CADMIUM ▪ Soluble cadmium compounds are employed as astringents, which are agents which cause shrinking or firming of tissues ▪ Used in the manufacture of stink bomb ▪ Cadmium poisoning is called Itai-itai (ouch- ouch) disease, which can be contracted from drinking water contaminated with cadmium ▪ Antidote: BAL (British Anti-Lewisite)/Dimercaprol. s. CADMIUM ▪ Important compounds ▪ Cadmium sulfate [CdSO4 ▪ Use: Is a topical astringent and a cure for eye infections (ophthalmic antiseptic). ▪ Cadmium sulfide [CdS ▪ Aka: greenockite, yellow sulfid ▪ Use: Treats seborrheic dermatitis (dandruff) ▪ Cadmium chloride [CdCl2 ▪ Use: emetic, treatment of Tinea infections : ] ] ] e MERCURY ▪ Aka: Hydrargyrum, Messenger of the gods, Quicksilve ▪ It is a true metal and the only metal that is liquid at room temperature ▪ Mercury and its compounds are extremely toxic (Hg spills are treated with S) r. MERCURY ▪ Antidotes for mercury poisoning are sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate, NF and egg albumin ▪ The white of one egg (egg albumin) should be given for every 250 mg of mercuric chloride ingested. Emesis should be induced thereafter ▪ Poisoning: Minamata diseas ▪ Antidote for poisoning: EDTA e.. MERCURY ▪ Pharmacologic action ▪ Diuretic ▪ Antiseptic ▪ Treatment of syphilis ▪ Cathartic ▪ Parasiticidal/Fungicide ▪ Industrial use ▪ Thermometer, amalgams (dental cement) : : MERCURY ▪ Important compounds: ▪ Mercurous chloride [Hg2Cl2] ▪ Aka: Calomel ▪ Use: Cathartic and local antiseptic ▪ Mercuric chloride [HgCl2] ▪ Aka: Corrosive sublimate ▪ Use: Disinfectant ▪ Mercurous iodide [HgI] ▪ Use: treatment of syphilis ▪ Mercuric iodide [HgI2] ▪ Use: treatment of indolent ulcers MERCURY ▪ Potassium mercuric iodide [K2HgI4 ▪ Use: Antiseptic and component of Mayer’s reagent ▪ Mercuric oxide [HgO ▪ Aka: yellow precipitate ▪ Use: Ophthalmic antiseptic ▪ Ammoniated mercury [Cl2H6HgN2 ▪ Use: treats impetigo, psoriasis and other minor skin conditions. ] ] ] GROUP IIIA ELEMENTS Boron Family  Group IIIA Elements ▪ +3 oxidation state appears in all of the elements in the family ▪ With increasing atomic number, the +3 oxidation state becomes more electrovalent in character ▪ They readily oxidize when heated in air but are stable at ordinary temperatures... Group IIIA Elements ▪ The oxides are readily reduced back to the free metal and the metals react readily with sulfur and the halogens ▪ The hydroxides tend to show amphoteric properties with the exceptions of the top and bottom elements of the group ▪ Members of this family give rise to double salts, the alum... BORON ▪ Boron is a metalloi ▪ Boron is toxic by ingestion and by absorption through the skin ▪ Boron is a bridge element resembling Silicon ▪ Boric acid and the borates are feebly bacteriostatic ▪ Oxyacids of boron: (1) boric acid [H3BO3] and (2) metaboric acid [HBO2].. d. BORON ▪ Boric acids is used as a topical anti-infective and solution for eyewash ▪ Sodium borate is a bacteriostatic. It is an ingredient in eye washes and mouthwashes ▪ Borate buffers are used in collyri ▪ Borate buffers are easily precipitated by common metals.. a. BORON ▪ Important compounds ▪ Boric acid [H3BO3 ▪ Aka: sal sativum, sal sedativu ▪ Toxicity: Lobster appearance ▪ Uses: ▪ Buffer (ophthalmic solutions – 2%) – weak acid ▪ Antiseptic (topical anti-infective) ▪ Tonicity adjusting agent – along with NaC ▪ Eyewash (2.5 – 4.5%) ] : m l BORON ▪ Na2B4O7. 10H2 ▪ Aka: Borax, Na tetraborate, Dobell’s solution ▪ Use: ▪ Antiseptic ▪ Eyewash ▪ Wet dressing for wounds ▪ A frequent ingredient of cold creams, eyewashes and mouthwashes O  ALUMINUM ▪ The most abundant of the metal ▪ The 3rd most abundant element in the Earth’s crust ▪ Insoluble aluminum compounds [e.g. Al(OH)3] are used as gastric antacids ▪ Soluble aluminum salts, due to their astringent property, are antiperspirant, and used in deodorants... s ALUMINUM ▪ Pharmacologic uses ▪ Astringent ▪ Thin aluminum foils for burn patients ▪ Elemental Al, in paste form, is topically a protective agent ▪ Protectives – merely provide a physical barrier against abrasions and harsh substances that may come in contact with the treated area.. : ALUMINUM ▪ Important compounds ▪ Aluminum chloride [AlCl3. 6H2O ▪ Uses: Astringent, antiseptic and antiperspirant/ deodorant ▪ Alum (Tawas) ▪ General formula: M+3 (M+1) (SO4)2. 12H2O ▪ AlNH4(SO4)2. 12H2O – NH4 salt ▪ AlK(SO4)2. 12H2O – K salt ▪ Use: Astringent and antiperspirant/deodorant : ] ALUMINUM ▪ Aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3 ▪ Aka: Amphojel, Cremalin gel ▪ Use: Antacid, Protectant ▪ Disadvantage: (1) Constipation, (2) Phosphate deficiency ▪ Aluminum phosphate [AlPO4 ▪ Aka: Phosphage ▪ Use: Antacid, astringent, demulcent ▪ Advantage: Does not interfere with phosphate absorption l ] ] ALUMINUM ▪ Aluminum carbonate [Al2(CO3)3 ▪ Use: treatment of phosphatic calculi ▪ Aluminum oxide [Al2O3 ▪ Aka: Alumina ▪ Use: treatment of silicosis ] ] ALUMINUM ▪ Aluminum silicates: A. Kaolin [Al2Si2O5(OH)4] ▪ Aka: China clay, native hydrated aluminum silicate ▪ Use: adsorbent in diarrhea and demulcent providing some soothing relief on abraded mucous membranes. B. Bentonite [BaTiSi3O9] ▪ Aka: soap clay, mineral soap, native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate ▪ Use: Suspending agent in pharmaceutical preparations ALUMINUM C. Pumic ▪ Of volcanic origin ▪ Use: dental abrasive e GALLIUM, INDIUM AND THALLIUM ▪ They have no pharmaceutical use except as radioactive isotopes used as diagnostic aids ▪ Thallium is among the most toxic and is absorbed in the intestine and through the skin from ointments and creams. Toxicity is similar to Arsenic (As).. GALLIUM, INDIUM AND THALLIUM ▪ Tl (I) is similar to K, Tl (III) is similar to Al (III) and Au (III) ▪ In is similar to Al and Ga.. GROUP IIIB ELEMENTS Lanthanides and Actinides Group  Group IIIB Elements ▪ Members: Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Lanthanum (La), Actinium (Ac) and the lanthanide or actinide series ▪ The elements in this group have oxidation numbers of +3 or +2, having physical properties that are typical of metals ▪ Sc, Y and La exhibit +3 oxidation state... Group IIIB Elements ▪ Group IIIB elements increases its metallic character with increasing atomic number ▪ Basicity of rare earth metals decreases with increasing atomic number ▪ All of the Lanthanide elements occur in mixtures, which are hard to separate due to their similarity in chemical properties whereas all the actinide elements beyond uranium prepared synthetically may only exist as radioactive isotopes, which are usually not very stable... GROUP IVA ELEMENTS Carbon Family Group IVA Elements ▪ The elements in this group may exhibit +2 and +4 oxidation states ▪ They are usually non-metallic in character (C & Si). Both elements are capable of catenation. ▪ Metallic properties appear with Si and Ge and become predominant in Sn and Pb.. Group IVA Elements ▪ The oxides of carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are acidic ▪ Whereas, those of the other members (Ge, Sn, and Pb) of the group are amphoteric ▪ Silicon may form complex insoluble aluminosilicates... CARBON ▪ It is widely distributed in nature ▪ The free state of C appears in various forms like coke, lampblack or charcoal ▪ It exists in two allotropic forms ▪ Amorphous (e.g. coal, charcoal and anthracite) ▪ Crystalline (e.g. diamond and graphite). :. CARBON ▪ Important compounds ▪ Activated charcoa ▪ Used to treat emergency poisoning prior to emesis ▪ In its finely powdered form is used as an adsorbent in the treatment of diarrhe ▪ Component of ____________________ l : a CARBON ▪ Carbon monoxide [CO] ▪ 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin than oxygen leading to asphyxia then death ▪ Treatment: (1) 100% O2, (2) Artificial air (80% He & 20% oxygen) and (3) hyperbaric oxygen ▪ Carbon dioxide [CO2] ▪ Aka: carbonic acid gas ▪ Use: potent and effective respiratory stimulant, used in the treatment of CO poisoning ▪ Dry ice (Solid CO2) – a refrigerant; used in the treatment of acne, angiomas, corn and calluses ▪ Container: Gray metallic cylinder CARBON ▪ CO2 – used as a respiratory stimulant. It is a by- product of fermentation ▪ Carbonates and bicarbonates are used as gastric antacids ▪ KHCO3 – used as a source of electrolyte ▪ Bismuth subcarbonate – astringent and protectiv ▪ (NH4)2CO3 – reflex stimulant and expectorant.. s e SILICON ▪ Is the second most abundant element in earth ▪ It does not occur free in nature but as silicon dioxide (SiO2) or silica, which is inert ▪ SiO2 occurs in nature in both crystalline and amorphous form (ex. quartz, sand, opal or siliceous earths)... SILICON ▪ Siliceous earths, also known as diatomaceous earth, infusorial earth, Fuller’s earth, Kieselguhr or Celite, is an excellent inert, non-absorbent filter aid – used as non-absorbent filtering aid and mild abrasive ▪ Amorphous silica – used as gas absorbents, dessicants, carriers, fillers and abrasives.. SILICON ▪ Silicosis (Si toxicity) – a lung condition resembling chronic tuberculosis, developing after long exposure (7 years or more) to “respirable dust” of silicon (silica particles 5 micrometer or less) ▪ Treatment: Aluminum oxide (Alumina - Al2O3) ▪ Breathing aluminum dust or aluminum oxide dust are regular intervals prevents development of silicosis.. SILICON ▪ Silicon form silicic acids, e.g. ▪ Metasilicic acid (H2SiO3) ▪ Orthosilicic acid (H4SiO4) ▪ Disilicic acid (H6Si2O7) : SILICON ▪ Silicates – a compound of Si and an anio ▪ Silicates are insoluble in water or acids except for alkali salts ▪ Silicates can be attacked by HF to form the gaseous SiF4.. n SILICON ▪ Important compounds: ▪ Silicon dioxide [SiO2] ▪ Aka: Purified siliceous earth or silica ▪ Use: Absorbent ▪ Talc [2MgO. 4SiO2. H2O] ▪ Aka: Hydrated magnesium silicate, French chalk ▪ It is the softest mineral known ▪ Uses: dusting powder as a protective and lubricant and as a filtering aid (due to its inertness) ▪ Talc must not be used in broken skin, wounds and surgical incisions – impairs wound healing.  SILICON ▪ Bentonit ▪ Aka: soap clay, mineral soap, native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate ▪ Use: Suspending agent, emulsifier for oil, a base for plasters and ointments ▪ Kaoli ▪ Aka: china clay, native hydrated aluminum silicate ▪ Uses: Clarifying agent, intestinal absorbent and protective, dusting powders n e SILICON ▪ Attapulgite [Mg5Si8O20(OH)2. 8H2O] ▪ Aka: Polymagma, Quintess ▪ Use: Absorbent for diarrhea (as adsorptive in anti-diarrheal products) ▪ Simethicone ▪ Polymeric dimethyl siloxane ▪ Use: Anti-flatulent in gastric bloating and in postoperative gaseous distention in the GI tract. ▪ Pumice ▪ Porous rock of volcanic origin ▪ Use: dental abrasive  SILICON ▪ Glas ▪ Made from a vitreous silicate material prepared by fusing a base (e.g. Na2CO3 and CaCO3) with pure silica then by cooling, to produce a vitreous mass. ▪ Glasses has the tendency to affect the integrity of the product. ▪ Solutions may become alkali upon long exposure to glass. s  SILICON ▪ Glass Additives 1. MnO2 – hides the blue-green color of ion present in silica 2. Borates – reduces coefficient of expansion. It also makes the glass alkali and heat resistant 3. K – gives a brown and a light resistant glas 4. Pb (Lead) – increases the refractive index of the glass.. :. s GERMANIUM ▪ Also known as eka-silico ▪ It is a metalloi ▪ It has no application in health sciences ▪ Used in the manufacture of electric conductors ▪ Two series of Ge compounds ▪ Ge2+ (Germanous) – ex. Ge ▪ Ge4+ (Germanic) – ex. GeO2 ▪ Germanous compounds are unstable; while Germanic compounds have greater stability. d O n :..  TIN ▪ Aka: Stannu ▪ When bent, Sn has a peculiar sound known as the “Cry of Tin” ▪ Tin unites directly with most non-metals (ex. SnO2 ▪ Used in the preparation of tin cans ) m. TIN ▪ Alloys of Tin ▪ Pewter (80% Sn, 20% Pb) ▪ Type metal (25% Sn, 50% Pb, 25% Sb) ▪ Gun metal (10% Sn, 90% Cu) ▪ Rose metal (25% Sn, 25% Pb, 50% Bi) ▪ Bronze (20% Sn, 80% Cu) : TIN ▪ Important compounds: ▪ Stannous fluoride [SnF2] ▪ Aka: Fluoristan ▪ Only Sn compound used pharmaceutically. ▪ Used as a dental prophylactic ▪ Anticariogenic at 8% concentration ▪ Stannic oxide [SnO2] ▪ Aka: Cassiterite ▪ Have germicidal effect particularly against Staphylococcus infections.  LEAD ▪ Aka: Plumbum, Plumbum nigru ▪ The most metallic element of the group (Group IVA) ▪ Metallic Pb tarnishes rapidly in moist air forming PbO ▪ Pb unites directly with F, Cl, and S ▪ ____ is the best solvent of Pb... m.  LEAD ▪ It is no longer used in pharmacy because it is toxic. ▪ It is highly toxic in nature as a cumulative poison, is readily absorbed in the intestinal tract and broken skin, and deposited in the bone ▪ Poisoning: Plumbism ▪ Antidote: EDTA, Ca versenat ▪ Uses: Astringent, protein precipitant e. LEAD ▪ Common source of Pb poisoning ▪ Lead pipes ▪ Batteries ▪ Paints ▪ Pb is the only Group IVA element that forms stable compounds with oxyacids. : LEAD ▪ Important compounds ▪ Plumbous acetate [Pb(CH3COO)2 ▪ Aka: Sugar of lead ▪ Use: Astringent ▪ Plumbic acetate [Pb2(CH3COO)2 ▪ Aka: Goulard’s extract ▪ Use: Astringent, antiseptic ▪ Plumbous oxide [PbO ▪ Litharge – natural mineral form of PbO : ] ] ] GROUP IVB ELEMENTS Titanium Family Group IVB Elements ▪ These are transition elements ▪ Hafnium is so similar to zirconium in all respects that whatever applies to one also applies to the other ▪ Trivalent titanium is the most important in this group... TITANIUM ▪ Aka: Titan, Sons of eart ▪ Use: A powerful reducing agen ▪ Titanium forms three oxides: titanium oxide (TiO), titanium trioxide (Ti2O3), titanium dioxide (TiO2), also known as rutile. h t  TITANIUM ▪ Important compounds ▪ Titanium dioxide [TiO2 ▪ Has a high refractive inde ▪ Uses ▪ Opacifying agent in pharmaceutics ▪ Used in the production of white capsules ▪ UV ray protectant – it reflects UV rays to prevent sunburn : : ] x ZIRCONIUM AND HAFNIUM ▪ Unpurified Zirconium ores contain hafnium ▪ Its hydroxide and carbonate are used in lotions or creams for contact dermatitis, antiperspirant and deodorant preparations ▪ Use of Zirconium (Zr) – same as Al but banned due to granuloma formation... ZIRCONIUM AND HAFNIUM ▪ Former official compounds ▪ Zirconium oxide ▪ Zirconium carbonate ▪ Both are used as antiperspirant and treatment of athlete’s foot. : GROUP VA ELEMENTS Nitrogen Family Group VA Elements ▪Members of Group VA displays regular gradation from the non-metallic nitrogen to metallic bismuth ▪Oxidation state of +3 and +5 are common to all member ▪The oxides of N and P are acidi ▪The oxides of As and Sb are amphoteri ▪The common oxide of Bismuth (Bi2O3) is basic s. c c NITROGEN ▪ Aka: Mephitic air, azote (“without life” ▪ Most abundant gas in air (nitrogen occurs in the atmosphere [78%]) and is combined in nitrates and organic compounds ▪ It is a colorless, tasteless, odorless inert ga ▪ It is non-flammabl ▪ It is produced by fractional distillation of liquid air e. ) s NITROGEN ▪Therapeutically inactiv ▪E l e m e n t a l n i t r o g e n i s e m p l o y e d pharmaceutically as an inert atmosphere in ampules and in other containers of substances that would be adversely affected by air ▪Liquid nitrogen is used as a refrigeran ▪Container: Black. e t NITROGEN ▪Important compounds: ▪ N2O (nitrous oxide) ▪ Aka: Laughing gas ▪ Used as a general inhalatory anesthetic ▪ Container: blue ▪ S/E: Diffusional hypoxia and megaloblastic anemia ▪ NO2 (nitrites) ▪ Use: Vasodilator, and treatment for cyanide poisoning ▪ NO3 (nitrates) ▪ Use: As a meat preservative (but carcinogenic) NITROGEN ▪Sodium nitrite (NaNO2 ▪ Use: Antidote for cyanide poisoning and as a vasodilator ▪Nitric acid (HNO3 ▪ Aka: Aqua Fortis ▪ It produces a yellow stain on animal tissues (Xanthoproteic test) ▪ Use: Acidifying agent and used externally to destroy chancres and warts ) ) PHOSPHORUS ▪Aka: Light carrier and St. Elmo’s fire ▪Phosphorus has two allotropic forms, white and red. ▪ White phosphorus: poisonous and flammable (distinctive, disagreeable, ozone-like odor) ▪ Red phosphorus: non-poisonous and non- flammable (brown to red amorphous powder) ▪The antidote for white phosphorus poisoning is cupric sulfate (CuSO4). PHOSPHORUS ▪P is essential to plant and animal life ▪P forms complex with Ca (hydroxyapatite – a complex of basic calcium phosphate) that is used in teeth and bone formation ▪Phosphates are used as buffer systems in the body... PHOSPHORUS ▪Allotropic modifications of Phosphorus ▪Scarlet phosphorus – produced by heating PBr3 with Hg at 240 degrees Celsius ▪Violet phosphorus – heating white P with Na to 200 degrees Celsiu ▪Metallic or black phosphorus – heating P with Pb at 530 degrees Celsius. s. : PHOSPHORUS ▪ Important compounds: ▪ Tribasic phosphates [Ca3(PO4)2, Mg3(PO4)2, AlPO4] are used as gastric antacids. ▪ Monobasic alkali phosphate [NaH2PO4] is used as a urinary acidifier and dibasic sodium phosphates [Na2HPO4] is used in saline cathartics and in enemas. ▪ Phosphates – are used as buffers, cathartics and antacids ▪ Principle anion in the intracellular fluid. PHOSPHORUS ▪ Phosphoric acid – used to form soluble salts of insoluble medicinal bases ▪ Hypophosphorous acid, NF – used as an antioxidant primarily with iodide and ferrous salts.. ARSENIC ▪ Aka: Lewisite meta ▪ It is a component of Salvarsa ▪ Arsenic compounds are very poisonous, so they are not employed medicinally ▪ In case of ingestion, if As is still in the GI tract, a freshly prepared mixture of iron (III) and magnesium hydroxide is the antidote. If it is already absorbed, dimercaprol is injected by IM. l n. ARSENIC ▪ Former compounds of As that are used medicinally ▪ Potassium arsenite (Fowler’s solution ▪ Arsenic trioxide [As2O3] ▪ Aka: Arsenolit ▪ In doses of 1mg/mL, has been used to treat acute promyelocytic leukemia. ▪ Used as an insecticide ▪ Side effects: Electrocardiographic abnormalities : e ) ARSENIC ▪ Salvarsan/Arsphenamine/Compound 606 and Neosalvarsan 914 are early arsenic compounds in the treatment of syphilis, a sexually-transmitted infection. ANTIMONY ▪ Aka: Stibiu ▪ Potentially toxi ▪ Pharmacologic use ▪ Expectorant ▪ Emetic ▪ Anti-helminthic ▪ Alloys of antimony ▪ Babbitt metal (80% Sn, 20% Sb) ▪ Anti-friction metal (75% Sn, 12.5% Sb, 12.5% Cu) m c : : ANTIMONY ▪ Important compound ▪ Antimony potassium tartrate [C8H4K2O12Sb2 ▪ Aka: tartar emetic, brown mixture ▪F o r m e r l y u s e d a s a n e m e t i c a n d expectorant ▪ Used in the treatment of schistosomiasis (liver fluke), a type of helminthic infestation that is endemic in eastern Philippines. : ] BISMUTH ▪ Aka: Beautiful meado ▪ Pharmacologic uses ▪ Astringent ▪ Antiseptic ▪ Internal protective for ulcer ▪ Side effects: Dark stools and blue-black gum ▪ Antidote: BAL/ Dimercaprol : w s  BISMUTH ▪ Soluble compounds of bismuth are toxic. Dimercaprol, given intramuscularly, is the effective antidote ▪ Bismuth compounds causes black stools because of Bismuth (III) sulfide ▪ Bismuth compounds are used to remove warts ▪ Bismuth is formerly an adjunct to As to treat amoebiasis in a form of Glycobiarsol.... BISMUTH ▪ Important compounds ▪ Bismuth subgallate, subcarbonate and subnitrate – used as an astringent, mild germicide, antacid and protective (due to its adherent properties) ▪ Colloidal bismuth subcitrate is prescribed clinically in the treatment of peptic ulcer.. : BISMUTH ▪ Milk of Bismut ▪ Aka: Bismuth cream ▪ A mixture of Bi subnitrate and Bi hydroxide ▪ Primary use: ▪Antacid ▪Internal protective especially for gastric- ulcer patients ▪Inhibits the growth of H. pylori h GROUP VB ELEMENTS Tantalum Family/Vanadium subgroup Group VB Elements ▪Members of this group are Vanadium (V), Niobium (Nb) and Tantalum (Ta) ▪The acidity of the oxides decreases with progressing atomic number, while the basicity of the hydroxides decreases with increasing oxidation state ▪Niobium – is also known as Columbium.. Tantalum ▪Tantalum is unaffected by body fluids, therefore inert in our body ▪It is used in sheet form for use in surgical repair of bones (muscle tissues will attach to tantalum as though it was a bone), nerve and tissues.. GROUP VIA ELEMENTS Oxygen Family Group VIA Elements ▪Group VIA is also known as chalcogens ▪Oxygen is non-metallic in character, whereas polonium is metallic, and is naturally radioactiv ▪Sulfur occurs as a free element in the earth’s crust and in combined form as metal sulfides and sulfates. e Oxygen ▪Aka: empyreal air, dephlogisticated air, “yne” ▪Most abundant element ▪Use: treatment of hypoxia/asphyxia and for the relief of cyanosis ▪It can cause edema if used uninterrupted for 1 to 2 days without adjusting the dose. ▪Container: Green Oxygen ▪It is very reactive, combining directly with all elements except Hg, Ag, Au, and members of the platinum family. ▪In free form, it constitutes about 1/5 of air by weight. ▪Oxygen, USP – therapeutic gas for the treatment of hypoxia ▪ Ozone (O3) – allotropic form of oxygen, is a powerful oxidizing agent Oxygen ▪ Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is commonly used at 3% and 6% concentrations. ▪ The strength of H2O2 depends on the volume of active oxygen (nascent oxygen) it yields. ▪ 3% H2O2 – is a mild, fast-acting, oxidizing germicide which destroys pathogenic bacteria ▪ 6% H2O2 – common bleaching agent (hair) Sulfur ▪Aka: Shubari, brimstone, enemy of copper ▪Uses: ▪ In the preparation of scabicidal and keratolytic ointments ▪ Stimulant cathartic ▪ Depilatory agent ▪ Fumigant ▪ Anti-dandruff ▪Rhombic sulfur – stable form of sulfur at room temperature ▪Prepared through Frasch process Sulfur ▪Elemental sulfur has a fungicidal actio ▪2 forms of sulfur ▪ Precipitated sulfur (milk of sulfur) ▪Used in the preparation of keratolytic ointments/lotions ▪Used as a scabicid ▪ Sublimed sulfur (flower of sulfur) ▪Used as a cathartic e : n Sulfur ▪Important compounds ▪Sulfur ointments and lotions – for dermatological applications as keratolytics (an agent that dissolves or breaks the outer layer of skin) ▪White lotion, USP – used as an astringent and protective. Prepared by adding sulfurated potash solution to zinc sulfate solution.. : Sulfur ▪Cadmium sulfide and selenium sulfide - used for the topical treatment of seborrheic dermatitis (dandruff ▪Sulfur dioxide, USP – used as antioxidants and preservative ▪Sulfur metabisulfite, NF – used as an antioxidant s ) Selenium ▪Aka: Selena, moo ▪An essential trace elemen ▪In large doses, selenium is toxi ▪Promotes the absorption of Vitamin ▪Used as an anti-oxidan ▪Slowly absorbed through the skin n t t c E Selenium ▪Important compounds ▪Selemethionine (75Se) injection, USP aids in diagnosing pancreatic tumors and growth ▪Selenium sulfide, USP – at 2.5% suspension treats seborrheic dermatitis. Note: Must not come in contact with the eyes and mouth as it damages the sensitive membranes. : s Selenium ▪Prolonged contact with the skin results in contact dermatitis (skin changes resembling eczema). GROUP VIB ELEMENTS Chromium subgroup Group VIB Elements ▪These are all distinctly metallic and forms oxides that are acidic (for those of high molecular weight ▪Molybdenum and tungsten are definitely acidic whereas uranium is both acid- and base- forming. ) Chromium ▪An essential trace elemen ▪Used as a glucose tolerance facto ▪51Cr – employed as a biological tracer in haematological procedure ▪Deficiency: hyperglycemi ▪Important compound: Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) – used as a powerful oxidizing agent a t s r Molybdenum ▪An essential trace elemen ▪Important compounds ▪ Ammonium molybdat ▪ Molybdenum oxide ▪ + FeSO4 – used as a hematinic e : t Uranium ▪Discovered by Becquere ▪Radioactive element used for the manufacture of atomic bomb ▪No pharmaceutical use l s GROUP VIIA ELEMENTS Halogen Family Group VIIA Elements ▪Halogen means “salt” or “sea salt producer” ▪Due to the reactivity, halogens are never found free in nature ▪Fluorine is the most electronegative elemen ▪ Fluorine – strongest oxidizing agent; weakest reducing agent ▪ Iodine – weakest oxidizing agent; strongest reducing agent.. t Group VIIA Elements ▪All halogens unite with hydrogen to form covalent gaseous hydrogen halides ▪Halogens ▪ Fluorine (F) – is a pale yellow gas ▪ Chlorine (Cl) – is a greenish yellow gas ▪ Bromine (Br) – a reddish brown liquid ▪ Iodine (I) – a black solid :. Fluorine ▪Is the strongest oxidizing agent ▪Most reactive among the electronegative elements. ▪Attacks all metals at room temperature except Au and Pt ▪Essential element present in bones and teeth ▪Poisoning: Fluorosis ▪Manifestation: (a) Mottled enamel; (b) Abnormal bone growth Mottled Enamel Fluorine ▪Fluoride, in large doses, treats osteoporosi ▪Important compounds ▪Sodium fluoride (2%) and Stannous fluoride (8%) – used as dental prophylactic and anticariogeni ▪CCl2F2 (Freon) – used as a refrigerant and aerosol propellant s : c Chlorine ▪Aka: dephlogisticated muriatic aci ▪Most abundant extracellular anio ▪Used as a water disinfectan ▪Is a very reactive non-metallic elemen ▪The chlorides of sodium, potassium and calcium are electrolyte replenishers. t n d t Chlorine ▪Important compounds: ▪H y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d , N F ( H C l ) – i s a pharmaceutical necessity for neutralizing and stabilizing water ▪ Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) – an expectorant and a systemic acidifying agent ▪Sodium hypochlorite solution (NaOCl) or Dakin’s solution – is an effective germicide, viricide and deodorant due to -HOCl. Chlorine ▪Sodium hypochlorite topical solution - contains 0.025% NaOCl (pH = 8). It has antimicrobial and antiviral properties which make it ideal to treat burn wounds ▪Calcium hypochlorite (CaOCl2) – is a good and cheap bleaching powder found in some laundry detergents.. Bromine ▪Described as a dark reddish brown fuming liquid with a suffocating odor ▪Fumes are highly irritating to mucous membranes ▪A powerful caustic and germicid ▪If skin comes in contact with bromine, wash immediately with a solution of NaHCO3 and treated with glycerin.. e. Bromine ▪Bromine containers should be opened only after having been thoroughly cooled ▪Pharmacologic action: Sedative/depressan ▪Excessive continued dosage of bromine results in bromism ▪Principal manifestation: (1) skin eruption, (2) psychosis, (3) weakness, and (4) headach ▪Antidote: NaCl and NH4Cl.. e t Iodine ▪Is the most metallic of all halogens (except for Astatine) ▪Weakest oxidizing agent; strongest reducing agent ▪Elemental iodine is toxic (in case of toxicity, corn starch and sodium thiosulfate can be given) ▪Pharmacologic action: ▪ Expectorant ▪ Antifungal ▪Deficiency: Goiter Iodine ▪ Iodine preparations: ▪ NaI and KI – enhances the solubility of iodine. ▪ Povidone-iodine (Betadine®) – has a synthetic polymer, PVP – that reduced the volatility of iodine and decreases skin irritation. ▪ Betadine® is also applied as an antiseptic on wounds, in gargles, and mouthwashes for infections of the oral cavity. ▪ Iodide – essential for thyroid functioning, also, ion exerts expectorant action Iodine ▪Elemental Iodine preparations ▪Strong Iodine Solution (aka: Lugol’s solution ▪Iodine tincture – antiseptic and disinfectant : ) Astatine ▪Resembles iodine, but is more metalli ▪Has no pharmaceutical application ▪ Only metallic halogen ▪ Only synthetic halogen ▪ Only radioactive halogen s c GROUP VIIB ELEMENTS The Manganese subgroup Group VIIB Elements ▪The only metal of pharmaceutical importance in this group is manganese ▪Metallic in character. Manganese ▪It is an essential trace element responsible for the activation of enzymes ▪Co-factor in ▪ Protein synthesis ▪ Phosphorylation ▪ Fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis ▪Poisoning: Signs and symptoms are Parkinson-like. :. Manganese ▪Official compounds ▪Manganese chloride (MnCl2) – also known as scacchit ▪Manganese gluconat ▪Manganese sulfate (MnSO4) e : e Manganese ▪Potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ▪ Aka: Mineral chameleon ▪ Used as a local anti-infective, astringent, deodorant and cleanser ▪ Used in dilute concentrations of 0.01% – 1% ▪ Dilute permanganate solutions delivered by gastric lavage is an antidote to various alkaloids and toxic substances (susceptible to oxidation) that have been ingested. ) Technetium ▪From the Greek word, “technetos” meaning artificial ▪The 1st element produced artificially ▪99Tc is distributed as a diagnostic radiopharmaceutical.. Rhenium ▪A very rare elemen ▪E m p l o y e d a s a c a t a l y s t f o r dehydrogenation (a chemical reaction involving the removal of H from a molecule). t GROUP VIIIB ELEMENTS The Ferrous Metals and The Platinum Metals (Triads) Group VIIIB Elements ▪These elements are metallic and all participate in the formation of coordination complexes ▪All form colored compounds ▪The difference between the iron triad and the platinum metals is the ability of the former group to form a simple cation. In contrast, platinum metals seem to prefer higher oxidation states... Group VIIIB Elements ▪First triad – Fe, Co, Ni (Ferrous metals ▪Second triad – Ru, Rh, Pd (Ruthenium, Rhodium, Palladium ▪Third triad – Os, Ir, Pt (Osmium, Iridium, Platinum ▪2nd and 3rd triads – platinum metals (exhibits extreme inertness to chemical reactions) ) ) ) Iron ▪Aka: Ferrum ▪Distributed widely in nature ▪It is an essential trace element. Ferrous ion is a hematinic agent, which increases the hemoglobin content of the blood. ▪When ferric ion is taken ! reduced to ferrous ion ▪I r o n i s a n i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t i n t h e transportation of oxygen by hemoglobin Iron ▪Hemoglobin and myoglobin – oxygen carriers ▪Transferrin – transport form of F ▪Ferritin – storage form of F ▪Iron readily forms soluble complexes with ligands, such as phosphate, citrate, tartrate and amines. ) e e Iron ▪Iron (II) Ferrous ▪ Green in hydrated state; white in anhydrous state ▪ Salts undergo slight hydrolysis & oxidized in solution ▪Iron (III) Ferric ▪ Yellow to brown in hydrated state ▪ Varies in color in anhydrous state ▪ Compounds have an astringent property : : Iron ▪ Sources: ▪ Hematite/Red oxide - Fe2O3 ▪ Iron stone – FeCO3 ▪ Iron pyrite (Fool’s gold) - FeS2 ▪ Fe enhances the absorption of: (a) Copper [Cu], (b) Vitamin C ▪ Use: Hematinic ▪ Toxicity: GIT distress and cardiac collapse ▪ Antidote: Deferoxamine Iron ▪ Important compounds: ▪ Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) ▪ Aka: Green vitriol ▪ Use: Hematinic (Side effect: Constipation) ▪ Ferrous gluconate (Fergon®) ▪ Less irritating in the GI tract ▪ Ferrous fumarate (Toleron®) ▪ More stable than FeSO4 in oxidation ▪ Ferrous carbonate (FeCO3) ▪ Aka: Chalybeate pills, ferruginous pills ▪ Use: Hematinic Iron ▪Iron dextran injection – composed of colloidal ferric hydroxide with partially hydrolyzed dextran and iron sorbitex injection – used for patients with poor GI tolerance or poor absorption of iron ▪Basham’s mixtur ▪ Components: Iron + Ammonium acetate ▪ Uses: (1) Astringent and (2) Styptic e. Iron ▪ Ferric ferrocyanide (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3) ▪ Aka: Prussian blue or Berlin blue ▪ Ferrous ferricyanide (Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2) ▪ Aka: Turnbull’s blue ▪ Note: A study revealed that men with higher ferritin levels (an iron protein storage) were found to be more prone to heart attack.  Cobalt ▪May catalyze the physiological utilization of iron ▪Iron + Cobalt medicinal preparations are designed to treat iron-deficiency anemia ▪E s s e n t i a l i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f erythrocytes and hemoglobi ▪Component of Vitamin B1 ▪Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia. 2 n. Cobalt ▪Important compounds ▪Cobaltous chloride (CoCl2 ▪ Aka: Lover’s ink, sympathetic ink ▪ Use: Indicator of the degree of water- saturation of a dessicant. ▪ Anhydrous: Blue; Hydrous: Violet to pink ▪Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12) : ) Nickel ▪Aka: Old nick’s coppe ▪Poisoning: “Nickel itch” (a form of contact dermatitis/irritation caused by fancy jewelry ▪NiCO3 and NiSO4 – used as a parasiticide ) r Osmium ▪Heaviest/densest meta ▪Important compounds ▪ Osmic acid ▪ Osmic tetroxide ▪ Both are used in staining microorganism for microcospic study in electron microscopes. : l Platinum metals ▪Palladiu ▪ Used as a catalyst in organic reaction and in hydrogenation ▪Platinu ▪ Used as a catalyst in hydrogenation m m Platinum metals ▪Organic drugs with Platinum ▪ Cisplatin (cis-diamminedichloroplatinum) – treatment of prostate cancer ▪ Carboplatin [cis-diammine (1,1- cyclobutanedicarboxylato) platinum(II)] – treatment of cancer, less toxic than cisplati ▪ Transplatin – not an effective treatment of prostate cancer n : THE END