Chemistry of Elements in the Periodic Table - Module 2 PDF

## MODULE 2: CHEMISTRY OF ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE ### B1. Group IA - The Alkali Metals **General Properties** * Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs * Univalent, +1 * Soft, waxy, and has high metallic luster * Low sp.gr.; low MP * Alkali salts are freely-soluble in water * Forms simple cations * Most active,...

## MODULE 2: CHEMISTRY OF ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE ### B1. Group IA - The Alkali Metals **General Properties** * Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs * Univalent, +1 * Soft, waxy, and has high metallic luster * Low sp.gr.; low MP * Alkali salts are freely-soluble in water * Forms simple cations * Most active, electro-positive metals * Easily oxidized in air (stored under mineral oil) * Reacts with water violently * M + H₂O → H₂ + MOH * Oxides and hydroxides are strongly BASIC #### B1.1 Lithium * Greek word lithos - "stone" * Lightest metal * Carmine red in non-luminous flame * Former ingredient of 7Up® * contained lithium citrate * As hangover cure * Li' was removed following death of 4 US Patients * LiCNS depressant * Li toxicity - nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) **Uses:** 1. **Lithium bromide** * hypnotic 2. **Bromide syrup** * Bromides of Li, Na, K, Ca and NH⁴ * sedative 3. **Lithium carbonate** * Antacid, antirheumatic, diuretic 4. **Lithium citrate** * Antacid - less irritating to stomach #### B1.2 Sodium * Latin name *Natrium*, obtained from niter * Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (electrolysis of NaOH - caustic soda) * Abundant in nature in the form of NaCl - rock salt * Bright golden yellow in non-luminous flame * Na predominant cation in ECF **Uses:** 1. **Sodium hydroxide** * "Caustic soda, lye" * Very deliquescent - absorbs moisture in air and liquifies * Escharotic corrosive to tissue * Uses: * in soap preparations * as standard solution in acid-base titrations 2. **Sodium chloride** * "Rock salt, table salt" * Electrolyte replenishment * Renders solutions to be isotonic * Prescription "fiat isotonic collyrium" * Normal saline solution (NSS), 0.9% NaCl * Physiological salt solution 3. **Sodium acetate** * Diuretic, treatment of cystitis and UTI 4. **Sodium carbonate** * Anhydrous "soda ash" * Decahydrate → "sal soda", "washing soda" * as anhydrous - buffer preparations * as solution - lotion preparations 5. **Sodium bicarbonate** * "Baking soda" * Antacid * Misuse can lead to "rebound acidity" * Urinary alkalizer 6. **Sodium nitrite** * Smooth muscle relaxant (slow onset) for angina pectoris * Treatment for cyanide poisoning 7. **Sodium citrate** * Oral: alkalizer, diuretic * Parenteral: anticoagulant 8. **Sodium phosphate** * disodium hydrogen phosphate * dibasic sodium phosphate * Saline laxative, cathartic 9. **Sodium biphosphate** * sodium dihydrogen phosphate * monobasic sodium phosphate * Urinary acidifier 10. **Sodium thiocyanate** * antihypertensive 11. **Sodium thiosulfate** * External: ringworm infection * IV: dermatitis * Treatment for Iodine and cyanide poisoning 12. **Sodium sulfate** * "Glauber's salt" * Saline laxative 13. **Sodium borate** * "Borax", sodium tetraborate * Bacteriostatic (as eye-wash and wet dressing) * Water-softener 14. **Sodium bromide** * Sedative 15. **Sodium iodide** * Solubilizing agent in iodine solution * Histolytic - destroys tissues * Expectorant 16. **Sodium hypochlorite** * Sodium hypochlorite Solution (5% NaOCl) * laundry bleaching agent * Labarraque's Solution * NaOCl diluted with equal volume of water * Oxidizing and bleaching agent * Modified Dakin's solution * Diluted NaOCl solution (0.5%) * Disinfectant, irrigating solution for wound 17. **Compound effervescent powders** * "Seidlitz powders" * Mild laxative * Comes in: * Blue paper - sodium bicarbonate and potassium sodium tartrate * White paper - tartaric acid * Reaction → CO₂ (effervescence) 18. **Soda Mint** * → Increases palatability * Sodium bicarbonate + aromatic ammonia * Carminative, antacid 19. **Soda lime** * Calcium hydroxide + Na/K hydroxides * Absorbs CO₂ * For metabolism tests, anesthesia, oxygen therapy 20. **Sodium bicarbonate and Calcium carbonate powder** * "Sippy Powder No. 1" * Antacid 21. **Sodium citrate solution** * Diaphoretic - increases sweating 22. **Compound sodium borate solution** * "Dobell's solution" * Astringent, antiseptic 23. **Theobromine and Sodium acetate** * Diuretic in cardiac edemas 24. **Sodium nitrate** * "Chile saltpeter" * Manufacture of nitric acid and fertilizer #### B1.3 Potassium * Latin name *Kalium*, obtained from *Salsola kali* * Isolated by Sir Humphry Davy from potash - various mined and manufactured potassium salts * Violet color in non-luminous flame * K' - predominant cation in ICF **Uses:** 1. **Potassium acetate** * diuretic 2. **Potassium bicarbonate** * Antacid, urinary alkalizer 3. **Potassium bitartrate** * "Cream of Tartar" * Diuretic, laxative 4. **Potassium bromide** * sedative 5. **Potassium carbonate** * Alkalizer in pharmaceutical preparations 6. **Potassium chlorate** * Oxidizing germicide * Manufacture of pyrotechnics, matches 7. **Potassium chloride** * diuretic 8. **Potassium citrate** * Diuretic, expectorant, laxative 9. **Potassium hydroxide** * "Caustic potash" * Similar to NaOH but more deliquescent, stronger and more expensive than NaOH 10. **Potassium mercuric iodide** * Germicide 11. **Potassium nitrate** * "Saltpeter" * Diuretic, diaphoretic 12. **Potassium permanganate** * "Chameleon mineral" * Very powerful oxidizing agent * Antiseptic, treatment of urethritis 13. **Potassium sodium tartrate** * "Rochelle salt, Sal Seignette" * Mild laxative and hydragogue * Component of Fehling's solution 14. **Sulfurated Potash** * "Liver of sulfur, hepar sulfuris" * Mixture of K polysulfides and thiosulfate * Treatment of parasitic skin diseases 15. **Potassium thiocyanate** * Smooth muscle relaxant #### B1.4 Rubidium * Discovered by Bunsen and Kirchhoff * Seldom used in medicine #### B1.5 Cesium * Discovered by Bunsen; first element discovered using a spectroscope * No commercial importance; never used in medicine #### B1.6 Ammonium * NH₄ cation behaves like an alkali metal * "hypothetical metal ion" **Uses:** 1. **Ammonium bromide** * sedative 2. **Ammonium carbonate** * "Sal volatile, Preston salt, Hartshorn, Salt of Hartshom" * Reflex stimulant * Expectorant 3. **Ammonium hydroxide** * Strong ammonia solution * 27-29% NH₃ * Used in manufacture of ammonium salts, nitric acid, fertilizers * Diluted ammonia solution * 9-10% NH₃ * "Spirit of hartshorn" * Product of destructive distillation of horns of male deer * "Household ammonia" * For cleaning and washing due to water softening and saponifying properties 4. **Aromatic Ammonia Spirit** * Gastric stimulant, carminative, antacid 5. **Ammonium acetate solution** * "Spirit of Mindererus" 6. **Expectorant Mixture** * *Mistura pectoralis, Stoke's Expectorant* 7. **Ammonium Chloride** * "Muriate of Ammonia, Sal ammoniac" * Expectorant, diuretic ### B2. Group IIA - The Alkaline Earth Metals * Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba * Bivalent, +2 * Reactions: * M + H₂O → H₂ + M(OH)₂ * M + H₂ → MH₂ * M(OH)₂ + heat → MO + H₂O * Solubility: * Hydroxide salts are less water-soluble than those of alkalis * Carbonates, sulfate, phosphates and fluoride salts are INSOLUBLE in water #### B2.1 Calcium * Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (through electrolysis) * Found in nature in the form of carbonate (chalk, marble, limestone) * Brick red in non-luminous flame * Ca²⁺ ion * 2nd most abundant cation in the ECF * Pharmacologic action: * Nerve transmission * Proper cardiac function * Blood coagulation * Structural basis of skeleton **Uses:** 1. **Calcium bromide** * sedative 2. **Calcium carbonate** * Most abundant and widely distributed calcium salt * Forms: * Amorphous - Chalk * Crystalline - Limestone, marble * Used as building material * Precipitated calcium carbonate * Precipitated chalk * External: as dentifrice (tooth powder) due to mild abrasive property * Internal: antacid * Prepared Chalk * Drop chalk * Antacid 3. **Calcium chloride** * Urinary acidifier * Ringer's Solution * Isotonic solution of Three Chlorides * Ca, Na and K chlorides * Lactated Ringer's Solution * Ca, Na and K chlorides + sodium lactate 4. **Calcium gluconate** * Calcium supplement 5. **Calcium hydroxide** * "hydrated lime or slaked lime" * Mixed with 3-4x of water → "Milk of Lime" * Saturated aqueous solution * Uses: * Antacid * Mild astringent * Saponifying agent for oils 6. **Calcium oxide** * "Lime, Calx, Quicklime" * Slaking: CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ * Used in making insecticides 7. **Sulfurated Lime Solution** * "Vleminckx Solution" * Lime + sublimed sulfur * Treatment of acne 8. **Dibasic calcium phosphate** * Source of calcium and phosphorus * Can be supplied with Vitamin D → Increases Ca absorption 9. **Tribasic calcium phosphate** * Precipitated calcium phosphate * "Bone ash" * Antacid 10. **Bleaching Powder** * Chlorinated Lime, Chloride of Lime * CaOCl(Cl) H₂O * Disinfectant, bleaching agent 11. **Calcium sulfate** * As dihydrate → Gypsum - filler for wall paper * As hemihydrate → *Plaster of Paris* - used in surgery for making casts 12. **Calcium sulfide** * Sulfurated lime, calcic liver of sulfur, hepar calcis * Treatment of acne #### B2.3 Barium * Yellowish green in non-luminous flame * Ba²⁺ is highly toxic **Uses:** 1. **Barium chloride** * Used in the treatment of Stokes-Adams disease ("heart-block") * Veterinary use: constipation in horses * Rat poison 2. **Barium sulfate** * Radiopaque contrast media * Oral: *Barium meal* * Rectal: *Barium enema* * Commercial use: making lithopone paints 3. **Barium hydroxide** * "Caustic baryta" * Aqueous solution *baryla water* * Use: CO₂-absorbent 4. **Barium nitrate** * Used in manufacture of green fire 5. **Barium oxide** * "Calcined baryta" * Used in manufacture of hydrogen peroxide 6. **Barium sulfide** * Depilatory - removes hair from skin #### B2.4 Beryllium * Named after mineral beryl * Aka "glucinum - sweet taste" * Be²+-toxic * Never employed in medicine; used in wires for pianos and scientific instruments #### B2.5 Magnesium * First isolated by Sir Humphry Davy, named after town called Magnesla * Found in the forms of: * Talc - native hydrated magnesium silicate * Dolomite - CaCO₃・MgCO₂ * Kieserite - native magnesium sulfate * Burns with a blinding white light- used in photography and pyrotechnics * Mg-salts are laxative. * Mg²⁺ 2nd most abundant cation in the ICF **Uses:** 1. **Magnesium carbonate** * "Magnesia alba" * Antacid, laxative * Clarifying or filtering agent in syrups * Abrasive in tooth powders 2. **Magnesium citrate** * Laxative, cathartic 3. **Magnesium hydroxide** * Antacid with mild laxative effect * Magnesia magma * "Milk of Magnesia" * A suspension prepared by hydration of MgO 4. **Magnesium oxide** * Antacid, laxative * "Magnesia" * Light- made by heating MgCO₃ to dull redness * Heavy - MgSO₄ + Na₂CO₃ → heat 5. **Tribasic magnesium phosphate** * Antacid 6. **Magnesium sulfate** * As heptahydrate → Epsom salt * Saline cathartic 7. **Magnesium trisilicate** * Antacid with adsorbent and protective property * Emulsifying agent 8. **Asbestos** * Fibrous minerals and poor heat conductors 9. **Talc** * native hydrated magnesium silicate * filling agent ### B3. Group IB - The Coinage Metals **General Properties** * Cu, Ag, Au * Employed for ornamental and coinage purposes * "Noble metals" * Occur free in nature * Chemically inert * Slowly oxidized in air * Malleable and ductile * Best Metals for electrical conductivity * 12 Ag 2nd Cu → 3rd Au * Best Metals for heat conductivity * 1 Ag 2nd Au → 3rd Cu * Possess oligodynamic effect * Toxic effect of metals on microbes #### B3.1 Copper * Latin name *Cuprum*, from "Cyprus" where many ores are mined * Red metal. * Cu salts - blue to emerald green in non-luminous flame * Cu ions: * Protein precipitant, fungicide * Astringent, emetic * Acts as catalyst for the storage and release of iron **Diseases:** * Menke's Disease - Cu Deficiency * Wilson's Disease - Cu Toxicity * Hepatolenticular degeneration * Antidote: * British Anti-Lewisite (BAL) or Dimercaprol * Penicillamine **Alloys:** * Brass Cu+ Zn * Bronze Cu + Sn * German silver - Cu + Zn + Ni * Sterling - Cu + Ag **Uses:** 1. **Cupric citrate** * Astringent, antiseptic 2. **Cupric sulfate** * "Blue vitriol or blue stone" * Component of Fehling's solutions and Benedict's solution → solutions used to detect reducing sugars * Emetic * Antidote for phosphorus poisoning 3. **Cupric acetate and acetic acid** * Components of Barfoed's reagent - test for reducing sugars 4. **Basic cupric acetate** * "Green verdigris" 5. **Cupric hydrogen arsenite** * "Scheele's mineral, Swedish Green" 6. **Cupric acetoarsonite** * "Paris Green, Parrot Green" * Insecticide 7. **CuSO₄ 5H₂O and CaO** * "Bordeaux mixture" * Algaecide and fungicide for swimming pool #### B3.2 Silver * Latin name *Argentum*, "shining" * White metal with metallic luster * Ag⁺ ion: * Protein precipitant * Colloidal silver preparations * Antiseptic, astringent * Irritant, corrosive * Argyria - darkening of skin due to long period of use of silver preparations **Uses:** 1. **Silver nitrate** * Eye antiseptic for newborn babies * Silver nitrate pencil * Lunar caustic * Toughened silver nitrate * Ammoniacal silver nitrate solution * Howe's solution 2. **Mild silver protein (19-23% Ag)** * "Mild protargin" * Mild antiseptic * Brands: Silvol, Argyrol 3. **Strong protein silver (7.5-8.5% Ag)** * "Strong protargin" * Stronger antiseptic action than mild silver protein * Brand: Protargol 4. **Colloidal silver chloride** * Antiseptic 5. **Colloidal silver iodide** * Antiseptic 6. **Silver sulfadiazine** * Prophylaxis, treatment of infections in burn wounds 7. **Silver bromide** * Antiseptic * Photography 8. **Silver oxide** * CO₂ absorbent 9. **Silver picrate** * *Picragol, Picrotol* * Antiseptic #### B3.3 Gold * Latin name *Aurum*, "shining dawn, aurora" * "King of all metals" * Due to color, scarcity and permanency * Universal symbol of highest purity and value * Most malleable and ductile metal * Yellow color **Properties:** * Selenic acid - Only single acid that can dissolve gold. * Aqua regia - Best reagent for dissolving gold * A mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid (1:3) * Pure gold 24-carat or 1000 fine * % Au = carat/24 x 100 * % Au = fineness/1000 x 100 * Pure gold is too soft often alloyed with Cu or Ag for hardness **Uses:** * Gilding and plating * As dental crowns, bridges and inlays (gold leaf) **Chrysotherapy** * Treatment of diseases (especially RA) with gold compounds * Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) **Uses:** 1. **Sodium aurothiomalate** * Commonly used gold-based DMARD 2. **Auranofin** * Orally available gold drug for RA 3. **Gold-198** * Radioactive isotope, anticancer 4. **Gold and sodium thiosulfate Complex** * IV treatment of lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis ### B4. Group IIB - The Zinc Group * Zn, Cd, Hg #### B4.1 Zinc * Bivalent, +2 * Burns with bluish-white flame **Uses of Zn metal:** * Galvanizing iron → protects from corrosion * Used in batteries **Uses of Zn²⁺ ion:** * Protein precipitant * Astringent * Mild antiseptic * Adjuvant in insulin preparations to enhance stability * Zn poisoning (Antidote: NaHCO₃) * Zn deficiency (Parakeratosis) **Uses:** 1. **Zinc acetate** * Astringent * Mild antiseptic 2. **Zinc chloride** * Escharotic for gangrenous sores * As mouthwash - antiseptic and astringent * For embalming and preservation of anatomical specimens 3. **Zinc iodide** * antiseptic 4. **Iodine and Zinc oxide glycerite** * Diluted Talbot's solution * Antiseptic and astringent 5. **Zinc oxide** * *Zinc white, Chinese white* * Antiseptic and astringent * As ointment or dusting powder - treatment of eczema, psoriasis, pruritis * Used in manufacture of adhesive tape * Used as paint pigment * *Calamine* * 98% ZnO + 2% ferric oxide * Very fine pink powder * Used in the form of powder, ointment or lotion - treatment of skin diseases * *Zinc-eugenol cement* * 70% ZnO * Dental filler * *Zinc oxide paste* * *Lassar's plain zinc paste* * *Zinc oxide hard paste* * *Unna's hard zinc paste* 6. **Medicinal Zinc peroxide** * Mixture of zinc peroxide, zinc carbonate and zinc hydroxide * Sterlized dry powder used in controlling surgical infections due to anaerobic bacteria 7. **Zinc stearate** * Dusting powder antiseptic and astringent 8. **Zinc sulfate** * As heptahydrate - *White vitriol* * Emetic and astringent * Mordant in dye - Intensify or fixed stains * *White Lotion,* *Lotion alba* * Zinc sulfate + potassium sulfide * Sulfide - for skin disease * Zinc - Astringent #### B4.2 Cadmium * Bivalent, +2 **Uses:** * Electroplating with no high polish or luster desired * Rust-proofing * Cd²⁺ ion * Similar action with Zn²⁺ ion but more toxic * Poisoning → death due to arresting respiration * *Ital-ital disease* - mass cadmium poisoning in Japan **Uses:** 1. **Cadmium sulfate** * Astringent in ophthalmic practice 2. **Cadmium sulfide** * Employed as yellow pigment "Jaune Brilliant" #### B4.3 Mercury * Latin name hydrargyrum, "Liquid silver or quick silver" * Shining silvery-white metal liquid * Forms amalgams (alloys) with many metals * *HYDRARGYRISM*- chronic Hg poisoning * *Minamata disease* - methylmercury poisoning in Japan **Pharmaceutical uses of Mercury:** **Elemental Mercury** * *Quicksilver, hydrargyrum* * As ointment - treatment of syphilis and crab-louse infestation * Used in metallurgy of gold and silver * Used in amalgams, thermometers, barometers * *Mild mercurial ointment* * *Blue ointment* * 9-10% Hg * Parasiticide * *Strong mercurial ointment* * *Mercurial ointment* * 47.5-52.5% Hg * Treatment of syphilis * *Mercury Mass* * *Blue Mass, Blue Pill* * Cathartic * *Mercury with Chalk* * Laxative **Uses:** 1. **Ammoniated mercury** * "White precipitate" * As dusting powder - treatment of eczema and parasitic skin diseases 2. **Mercuric chloride** * *Corrosive sublimate, mercury bichloride* * Extremely poisonous * Germicidal * 0.10% concentration - Disinfectant hand wash * Used in preparing Yellow Lotion (*Lotio flava, Yellow wash*) 3. **Mercuric cyanide** * Antiseptic, antisyphilitic 4. **Mercuric iodide** * Mixed with KI to prepare Mayer's reagent - a testing agent for alkaloids 5. **Mercuric oxide** * Yellow HgO * *yellow precipitate, 99.5% HgO* * Fine impalpable powder * As ophthalmic ointment antiseptic * Red HgO * *red precipitate*, 1% HgO * Coarse powder * As ointment - skin antiseptic 6. **Mercurous chloride** * Also called 'White precipitate" in French prescriptions * *Calomel, subchloride of mercury* * Cathartic * Used in preparation of Black Lotion (*Lotio nigra, Black wash*) 7. **Mercuric nitrate** * Component of Millon's reagent (test for proteins) * As ointment - antiseptic ### B5. Group IIIA - The Boron Group * "Triels", Trivalent, +3 * IIIA B, Al, Ga, In, TI * IIIA forms ALUMS * IIIA hydroxides are amphoteric #### B5.1 Boron * Elemental form is never employed in medicine and pharmacy **Uses:** 1. **Boric acid** * *Boracic acid* * Used as dusting powder or ointment base * Antiseptic * Used in preparation of Lister's solution (antiseptic mouthwash) 2. **Sodium borate** * "Borax", sodium tetraborate * Bacteriostatic (as eye-wash and wet dressing) * Water-softener 3. **Sodium perborate** * Treatment of Vincent's angina ("trench mouth") * Dentifrice * Mayer's reagent + KOH → Nessler's reagent (test for ammonia in water) #### B5.2 Aluminum * Irritant poison * Action similar to mercuric chloride * Used to prepare Donovan's Solution * Used in making cooking utensils, instruments due to its lightness, strength and non-corrosive property **Uses:** 1. **Aluminum chloride** * Antiseptic and astringent * Used as catalyst in organic synthesis (Friedel-Craft's Reaction) 2. **Aluminum hydroxide** * Used as dry mordant * Combined with organic dyes to form lakes * *Aluminum hydroxide gel* * Colloidal aluminum hydroxide * Antacid and protective in the treatment of peptic ulcer 3. **Aluminum phosphate** * As gel antacid, astringent, demulcent 4. **Aluminum silicates** * *Kaolin* * Native hydrated aluminum silicate * Adsorbent used in diarrhea due to food poisoning * Absorbent - ulcers and moist infections * *Bentonite* * 0 Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate * Stabilize emulsions * Suspending agent * Clarifying agent * Adsorbent * *Pumice* * 0 Of volcanic origin, complex silicates of Al, Na, and K * Used as distributing agent 5. **Aluminum sulfate** * As solution - antiseptic and astringent 6. **Aluminum subacetate solution** * Excellent source of aluminum hydroxide 7. **Aluminum acetate solution** * "Buro's solution" * Aluminum subacetate solution + Glacial acetic acid * Antiseptic and astringent on skin 8. **Alum** * Potassium (or ammonium) aluminum sulfate dodecahydrate * Astringent #### B5.3 Thallium * *Thallium acetate* * Formerly used in creams as depilatory * Very toxic * Gallium and Indium have little to no medicinal/pharmaceutical importance. ### B6. Group IIIB - The Scandium Group * IIIB - Sc, Y * Yttrium and Scandlum have little to no medicinal/pharmaceutical importance.