Politics: An Introduction (3rd Edition) PDF

POLITICS POLITICS An Introduction THIRD EDITION George A. MacLean Ducan R. Wood Lori Turnbull  Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by...

POLITICS POLITICS An Introduction THIRD EDITION George A. MacLean Ducan R. Wood Lori Turnbull  Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries. Published in Canada by Oxford University Press 8 Sampson Mews, Suite 204, Don Mills, Ontario M3C 0H5 Canada www.oupcanada.com Copyright © Oxford University Press Canada 2020 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First Edition published in 2010 Second Edition published in 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Permissions Department at the address above or through the following url: www.oupcanada.com/permission/permission_request.php Every effort has been made to determine and contact copyright holders. In the case of any omissions, the publisher will be pleased to make suitable acknowledgement in future editions. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Title: Politics: an introduction / George A. MacLean, Duncan R. Wood, and Lori Turnbull Other titles: Introduction to politics Names: MacLean, George A. (George Andrew), 1967- author. | Wood, Duncan R. (Duncan Robert), 1968-author. | Turnbull, Lori, 1978- author. Description: Third edition. | Originally published under the title: Introduction to politics. Toronto: Prentice Hall, ©2001. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20190196416 | Canadiana (ebook) 20190196424 | ISBN 9780199027521 (softcover) | ISBN 9780199039227 (looseleaf) | ISBN 9780199031238 (EPUB) Subjects: LCSH: Political science—Textbooks. | LCGFT: Textbooks. Classification: LCC JA66.M25 2020 | DDC 320—dc23  Cover images, clockwise from top left: Flags of the World © Sinuswelle/Shutterstock.com, Gender Equality March © Ink Drop/Shutterstock.com, Peace Tower, Canadian Parliament © Facto Photo/Shutterstock.com, Woman voting © Paramarta Bari/Shutterstock.com Cover design: Sherill Chapman Interior design: Sherill Chapman Brief Contents Boxes Preface From the Publisher 1 Studying Politics 2 Finding a Common Vocabulary: Political Concepts 3 Political Thought, Philosophy, and Ideology 4 The Role of Government 5 Branches of Government 6 Political Systems 7 Political Participation: Elections and Parties 8 Political Socialization and Culture 9 Politics in Developed States 10 Politics in Developing States 11 International Politics and Foreign Policy 12 International Security 13 International Political Economy 14 Conclusion Notes Glossary Index Contents Boxes Preface From the Publisher 1 Studying Politics Learning Objectives Introduction Power and Politics Why Study Politics? What Is Politics? Approaches Used in the Study of Politics Political Studies and Our Daily Lives Division and Connection in a Changing World Domestic and International Politics Citizens and Canada  Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 2 Finding a Common Vocabulary: Political Concepts Learning Objectives Introduction Political Organization Political Action Values Identity Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips  3 Political Thought, Philosophy, and Ideology Learning Objectives Introduction What Is Political Philosophy? The History of Political Thought Ideology The Left–Right Spectrum Liberal Thought Neo-Liberalism Conservatism Socialism Nationalism Other Systems of Thought Feminism Post-Colonialism Environmentalism Fascism  Anarchism Political Islam Confucian Political Thought The Relevance of Ideas Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 4 The Role of Government Learning Objectives Introduction What Do Governments Do? What Can Cause a Government to Fail? Some Shared Objectives of Government Some Activities of Government Schools of Thought Regarding the Role of Government  Objectives of Political Systems Constitutions: The “Basic Law” Liberal Democracy Authoritarianism Totalitarianism Government and Canada Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 5 Branches of Government Learning Objectives Introduction Institutions of Government The Executive The Legislature Legislative Structures  Legislative Functions The Judiciary Constitutionality Ruling Judicial Legal Interpretation Judicial Dispute Adjudication The Bureaucracy Presidential and Parliamentary Systems Government in Canada Canadian Federalism Canadian Courts and the Constitution The Charter of Rights and Freedoms and Individual Citizens Canadian Law Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 6 Political Systems  Learning Objectives Introduction Distributing Power within the State: To Centralize or Share? Unitary Systems Federal Systems Canadian Federalism: An Evolving History The Division of Powers The Evolution of Canadian Federalism Quebec and Canadian Federalism Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 7 Political Participation: Elections and Parties  Learning Objectives Introduction Democracy and Voting Types of Electoral Systems Political Parties Canada’s Political Parties Election Campaigns Campaign Financing Direct Democracy and the Referendum Elections and Political Parties in Canada Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 8 Political Socialization and Culture Learning Objectives Introduction Political Culture Categories of Political Culture Political Socialization Public Opinion The Media and Politics Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organizations The Participation of Private Actors in the Decision- Making Process Policy Communities Advocacy Groups Lobbying Corporatism Canadian Political Culture and Socialization Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 9 Politics in Developed States Learning Objectives Introduction Comparative Politics What Are Developed States? Challenges Facing Developed States Today A Brief Post-War History of the Developed World Post-Industrialization and Political Authority Case Studies Canada The United States South Korea The European Union Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 10 Politics in Developing States Learning Objectives Introduction A Note about Terminology Political and Social Development Democracy and Political Development The Role of the Military Health Care Economic Development The Link between Political and Economic Development Population Growth The Role of International Organizations China: The Politics of an Emerging Global Power China’s Political System Chinese History: The Heritage of Imperialism and Revolution The Origins of Modern China Chinese Economic Reform  Future Challenges for China Mexico: The Challenges of Democratization History Mexico’s Political System The Mexican Presidency The Mexican Congress A Brief History of Elections in Mexico The Mexican Economy Economic Liberalization and Openness Organized Crime, Drugs, and Public Security The Future of Mexico India: Politics and Development in the World’s Largest Democracy History India’s Political System Indian Development The Future of India Afghanistan: The Legacies of Conflict in a Developing State The History of Modern Afghanistan The People of Afghanistan The Political System of Afghanistan The Future of Afghanistan Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks  Further Reading Film and Video Clips 11 International Politics and Foreign Policy Learning Objectives Introduction International Politics, International Relations, Foreign Policy, and the State The International System Actors in World Politics Globalization Competing Approaches to International Politics Power Politics: The Realist Approach Process and Co-operation: The Liberal Approach Rejecting Realism: The Marxist Approach Perception and Politics Diplomacy and Foreign Policy Geography  Natural Resources Population Technological Development Internal Political Structures and Processes Canada and the World Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 12 International Security Learning Objectives Introduction Security and Insecurity War in International Relations Terrorism Humanitarian Intervention Peacekeeping, Conflict Management, and Resolution  Canada in Afghanistan Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 13 International Political Economy Learning Objectives Introduction What Is IPE? The Perspectives of IPE Economic Interdependence International Economic Co-operation The World Trading System The Growth of Trade since 1846 The GATT The WTO Present and Future Challenges for Trade  The International System of Money and Finance What Is the International Monetary System? What Is the International Financial System? The Bretton Woods System The Latin American Debt Crisis International Finance and the Late 1990s Crisis The Global Financial Crisis of 2008 Economic Regionalism Oil and Oil Prices Multinational Corporations Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips 14 Conclusion Learning Objectives Introduction What Have We Learned? Where Do We Go from Here? Conclusion Self-Assessment Questions Weblinks Further Reading Film and Video Clips Notes Glossary Index Boxes 1.1 Career Paths for Political Studies Graduates 1.2 Behaviouralism after World War II 1.3 Involvement: Apathy to Action 1.4 Citizenship Quiz 2.1 Institutions and Development 2.2 The Concept of Nation and Sovereignty in Canada 2.3 The Abuse of Power 2.4 The Cult of Personality 2.5 Charismatic Leadership 2.6 Rising Violent Crime and the Crisis of State Legitimacy in Central America 2.7 Economic Justice and the Welfare State 2.8 Community and the Individual 3.1 Plato (427–347 BCE) 3.2 Aristotle (384–322 BCE) 3.3 Deductive and Inductive Methods 3.4 Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) 3.5 Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) 3.6 John Locke (1632–1704) 3.7 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) 3.8 Adam Smith (1723–90) 3.9 John Stuart Mill (1806–73) 3.10 Karl Marx (1818–83) 3.11 Energy Efficiency 3.12 John Rawls (1921–2002) 4.1 The Problem with Sovereignty 4.2 Equalization in Canada 4.3 The Welfare State 4.4 Unwritten Constitutions 4.5 The Constitution Act, 1982 4.6 Democracy Topples Authoritarianism? 4.7 Are Governors General Just Ceremonial? 5.1 Gun Laws and Levels of Government 5.2 VP or Senator? Joe Lieberman and the 2000 US Election 5.3 Question Period or Shouting Match? 5.4 When Parties Must Co-operate: Coalition Governments 5.5 The Ultimate Power? The Right to Declare War 5.6 Constitutionality and Same-Sex Marriage 5.7 Can Government “Stop”? Lessons from the Clinton Era and Today 5.8 Does a Cabinet Minister Have to Be Elected? 5.9 The Charter: Individual or Collective Rights? 6.1 The European Union: A Modern Confederation 6.2 Scottish Independence 6.3 Switzerland 6.4 The United States 6.5 The United States of Mexico 6.6 India: Centralized Government in the World’s Largest Democracy 6.7 Why Ottawa? 6.8 Fiscal Federalism 6.9 Natural Resources 7.1 Who Gets to Vote? 7.2 Gerrymandering 7.3 Rock the Vote 7.4 The Suffragette Movement 7.5 Negative Campaigning 7.6 Campaign Finances and the 2016 US Presidential Campaign 8.1 The Symbols of Canada as a Form of Political Socialization 8.2 How to Remember Canada’s First Prime Minister? 8.3 Citizen Kane 8.4 Aló, Presidente: Hugo Chavez and the Control of Venezuelan Television 8.5 Rupert Murdoch and News Corporation 8.6 Civil Society and Globalization 8.7 International Trade and Public Relations: The NAFTA Lobby 9.1 What Is “Development”? 9.2 Political Economy 9.3 One World? 9.4 Bretton Woods and Political Order 9.5 Slavery and the American Civil War 9.6 “Third” Parties in US Politics 9.7 Will Turkey Join the EU? 9.8 Why Brussels? 10.1 The Human Development Index 10.2 The Beijing Olympics and Internet Censorship 10.3 Colombia: The War on Drugs and the FARC 10.4 AIDS, Maternal Health, and the Developing World 10.5 Education, Gender, and the Oportunidades Program 10.6 The Brundtland Commission Report and Sustainable Development 10.7 The Politics of Population: Nigeria 10.8 The Tiananmen Square Massacre 10.9 Taiwan 10.10 Mexico’s Student Movement, Media Bias, and the 2012 Elections 10.11 Canada in Afghanistan 11.1 Domestic and International Politics: Building a Wall 11.2 The Twitter Effect: Elections in Iran 11.3 Cliché Alert! The “Global Village” 11.4 Patriotism or Nationalism? 11.5 NATO 11.6 Human Migration 11.7 The Occupy Movement 11.8 Cultural Sensitivity: Torres Strait Islanders and Australia 11.9 The End of the Soviet Union 11.10 Woodrow Wilson and the Failure of the League of Nations 11.11 Diplomacy Goes Awry: April Glaspie and Saddam Hussein 12.1 Human Security 12.2 “Anarchy in the UK” 12.3 Just Wars 12.4 “Video Game” War, 1991 12.5 The Debate on Terror in the United States 12.6 Intervention Failure: Rwanda 13.1 International Economic Organizations and Their Functions 13.2 The US–EU Banana Dispute 13.3 The Great Crash of 1929 13.4 The Euromarkets 13.5 Foreign Aid and Tied Aid 13.6 The G7 and Multilateral Leadership 13.7 The New NAFTA 13.8 Brazil and Renewable Energy 14.1 From “Me to We”: Marc and Craig Kielburger 14.2 The Politics of Climate Change Preface One of the most difficult tasks for a professor in introducing students to the study of politics is choosing the right textbook. Every instructor has his or her own preferences about the material, concepts, themes, and pedagogy contained in a first-year political science text; therefore, no book could possibly meet every requirement and partiality. Putting together an introductory text, then, is a delicate endeavour. How might one assemble a coherent volume that both addresses disparate views on what is to be presented and poses some fresh and innovative ideas? This book is an attempt to answer that question. Fundamentally, its intent is to provide undergraduate students with a comprehensive and thoughtful introduction to the study of politics. This text incorporates some essential questions that define politics, such as: Who has power in society, and why? How do individuals and groups participate in politics and governance? How can we distinguish among so many types of political systems? Why is conflict so prevalent in the world today? How is wealth distributed, and why does such inequity exist? In our design of this book, we considered a wide variety of theoretical, analytical, and empirical ways to answer these questions. We decided that the best method was to lead you through different approaches, topics, and examples. This text presents you with a challenge: you may or may not already have views on politics, but by the time you finish this book and course, you will likely have more questions than before. You might also think differently and more critically about what you assume you already know! If that’s the case, this book will have done its job. Organization This book is organized to introduce you to the study of politics in a comprehensive and constructive manner. Chapter 1 presents the fundamental nature of politics and the field of political studies. We explore some major approaches, concepts, and themes in the study of politics in this chapter, as well as how politics affects so many aspects of our daily lives. We also discuss the nature of citizenship and what it means in the specific context of being Canadian. The substance of this chapter lays the foundations for the rest of the text. Chapters 2 and 3 examine some of the major terms and areas of political thought in greater detail. Chapter 2 begins with an exploration of some important political concepts, including power, government, the state, legitimacy, equality and justice, and sovereignty. You will need a solid understanding of these terms and ideas in order to articulate your own ideas about politics and governance and to understand relationships between political actors and institutions. The chapter also addresses identity and how we connect with and relate to others in society. Chapter 3 follows with an overview of political philosophy and the major schools of thought used in political science, such as liberalism, socialism and communism, conservatism, environmentalism, feminism, post-colonial thought, nationalism, and fascism. It looks at both traditional and critical political ideologies and the ideas that have driven the study of politics. The chapter identifies influential thinkers associated with each of these schools of thought and attempts to plot each perspective on an ideological spectrum. This chapter refers to ideologies and political philosophy in Canada and provides an overview of other approaches, such as Confucianism and political Islam. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 focus on the importance of government and the roles and responsibilities that governments have in our lives. These chapters begin to unpack the complexity of government organizations and their internal checks and balances, to give you a more concrete sense of how government works (or doesn’t). In Chapter 4, we examine the main forms of government throughout history and into the present day. The chapter deals with systems of government, the nature of government, objectives and activities of different governments, and points of view regarding the fundamental role that government ought to play. In this chapter, we explain the distinctions among liberal democracies, authoritarian governments, and totalitarian systems. Government in Canada is given special attention here. Chapter 5 covers primary structures and roles of government agencies and institutions. It delves into the important levels of government activity, including the executive, legislative, judicial, and bureaucratic divisions. The two main types of government systems in the world today, parliamentary and presidential, are also compared and contrasted. Finally, Chapter 6 considers how different political systems are organized in terms of their responsibilities and decision-making systems. Unitary, federal, confederal, and devolved political systems are all examined, with special attention to the history and development of power-sharing in Canada. Chapters 7 and 8 are concerned with the roles played by individuals and groups in society. Chapter 7 considers decision-making and electoral systems, campaign contributions, elections and referendums, and political parties. Chapter 8 picks up the theme and looks at the social and political process of participation. Education, opinion polls, socialization, advocacy groups, media, and culture all have abundant effects on how our political systems are run and the role we play in them. Together, these two chapters trace the formulation of ideas and information that influence citizens and the way in which these ideas are played out on the political stage. The next section of the book is dedicated to country case studies. This examination of politics is undertaken in a comparative context, considering the multitude of paths to development in today’s world and the struggles that countries confront along the way. We begin in Chapter 9 with a consideration of politics and economics in what are commonly defined as “developed” countries, including Canada, the United States, South Korea, and members of the European Union. These cases offer distinct examples of how political and economic spheres influence governance. Chapter 10 carries this discussion to what we often call the “developing world,” contemplating some of the significant approaches and perspectives regarding development and, in particular, how the development process is as varied as the countries involved. By way of example, the chapter surveys the development experiences in China, Mexico, India, and Afghanistan, presenting a diverse stance on the myriad issues facing countries in the developing world. As part of the analysis in these chapters, we acknowledge the complexity in defining a country as either “developed” or “developing” and assert that this dichotomy might not be as useful as we once thought it was. A country might be considered “developed” according to some criteria, but “developing” in others, which suggests that a tendency towards blanket categorizations might obscure the truth on the ground in any given country.  The final chapters take on the study of politics on the world stage, using some of the primary concepts and themes discussed earlier in the book. Chapter 11 examines the state and sovereignty in a modern world, as well as the nature of and approaches to the international system. This chapter scrutinizes some current themes and issues in global politics, including globalization, foreign policy-making, geography and population, diplomacy, nationalism, and different actors (e.g., states, non-state actors, individuals, and multinational corporations). Chapter 12 is dedicated to the complicated issue of global insecurity: war, terrorism, peacekeeping, intervention, and conflict management. Here we also look at Canada’s changing role in the world. Chapter 13 turns its attention to the important dynamic of the international political economy and its impact on domestic politics. This chapter illustrates the importance of international trade, production, and finance, as well as current themes such as world debt, leadership, and economic regionalism. Finally, Chapter 14 provides some concluding thoughts by focusing on an important question: Where do we go from here? Future studies, careers in political studies, and the ways we can apply what we have learned are all given some thought in this chapter. Key Features Pedagogical Features Political studies, like any other academic discipline, has its own vocabulary and terminology. Marginal definitions, provided in each chapter, emphasize key terms and concepts, and a full glossary is included at the end of the book. Every chapter contains self-assessment questions, a list of further readings, and suggested websites. Throughout the chapters, boxes provide specific examples of important themes, events, and actors. Images, tables, graphs, and figures illustrate important points without interfering with the text itself. Finally, an index of all important terms, concepts, themes, events, and individuals is included at the end of the book. Theoretical Framework Most introductory textbooks begin with a survey of significant concepts (e.g., the state, power, government, legitimacy, etc.) and a review of the philosophical tradition of political analysis (Plato’s Republic, Aristotle’s Politics, Hobbes’s Leviathan, and so on). Taking a comparative theoretical approach (meaning that no specific theory is used as a core focus), this text shows how the development of theory in political studies flavours the manner in which we must consider a contemporary and changing political climate, both domestic and international. The methodology of this text is not intended to be heavy-handed or overly theoretical; theory is central to the purpose of the book, but the book’s principal goal is to demonstrate the sensitive and changing nature of philosophical thought in politics. Acknowledgements Like any book project, this text is the product of various contributions from many people. In the very early stages, Oxford University Press sales and editorial representative Alan Mulder and acquisitions editor Katherine Skene were largely responsible for urging us to move ahead with a prospectus for a new introductory textbook in political studies. We are grateful to them for their vision and support. A number of developmental editors were involved with the production of this book and its three editions. Peter Chambers deserves recognition for his good humour, professionalism, and encouragement, which made work on the second edition a true pleasure. Leah-Ann Lymer and Richard Tallman demonstrated endless patience and professionalism on the third edition, and their comments and insights on all chapters are most highly valued. This book has also benefited from the many useful comments made by several colleagues who took on the task of reviewing it in its many stages. We are indebted to them for their time and suggestions, which have contributed to this final work. We join the publisher in thanking the following reviewers, along with those who wish to remain anonymous, whose thoughtful remarks have helped to shape this text as well: Todd Alway, McMaster University; Mona Brash, Camosun College; Terry L. Chapman, Medicine Hat College; Noemi Gal-Or, Kwantlen Polytechnic University; Logan Masilamani, Simon Fraser University; Marda Schindeler, Lethbridge College; John Soroski, Grant MacEwan University; Yasmine Shamsie, Wilfrid Laurier University; Manuel Balan, McGill University; Saira Bano, Mount Royal University; Bruce Foster, Mount Royal University; Donal Gill, Dawson College and Vanier College; Kevin Ginnell, Douglas College and Simon Fraser University; Jason Morris, University of Northern British Columbia; Ross Michael Pink, Kwantlen Polytechnic University; David Pond, University of Toronto; Paul Prosperi, Langara College; Claudia Schaler, St. Francis Xavier University; Bruce Smardon, York University; Jeffrey Spring, St. Francis Xavier University; and Andrew Wender, University of Victoria. We would be remiss in not thanking our students, who have inspired us to always question what we think we know and to be open to new perspectives. The improvements in the second and third editions are in many ways due to them and their aspirations for excellence. Some of our associates and research assistants were fundamental in the completion of parts of this book. We would like to thank Rashide Assad at the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM) for her extremely important help on this project. We also thank the University of New Brunswick, the University of Manitoba, ITAM, and the Asociacion Mexicana de Cultura for their support during the writing of this book. We have discovered that writing a book such as this one takes more than simple authoring. It is the result of efforts both small and large by numerous people, some close friends and associates, and some colleagues we have not met. The final product is our own, however, and we alone take responsibility for any errors it may contain. George MacLean, Duncan Wood, and Lori Turnbull September 2019 From the Publisher Welcome to the third edition of Politics: An Introduction, a clearly written and up-to-date introduction to political science that explores politics from a Canadian, comparative, and international perspective. Written by scholars with extensive academic experience in the discipline as well as work experience in government and policy, this text covers essential questions regarding politics, such as ones related to who holds power and why, how to distinguish among so many types of political systems, how groups might participate in political activity, and why conflict is so prevalent in the world today. Features Thorough Analysis The text presents a survey of political concepts and ideologies before examining topics such as the importance of government; political systems, participation, and culture; developed and developing countries; global security; and the international political economy. National and International Coverage While emphasizing Canadian politics, the text maintains an international perspective. Boxes and case studies continue to provide detailed examples of significant events, major issues, and influential figures—both past and present—from Canada and around the world. Chapters 9 and 10 now include new case studies of South Korea and Afghanistan. Currency The text’s focus on the latest political developments illustrates the dynamic nature of the political landscape. This updated edition includes new coverage of populism, the rebirth of protectionist nationalism, and the politics of climate change. Supportive Pedagogy Chapter learning objectives, key terms, self-assessment questions, weblinks, and further readings enhance student understanding and promote active learning.  Ancillary Resource Centre Politics: An Introduction is part of a comprehensive package of learning and teaching tools that includes ancillary resources for both instructors and students, all available on the book’s Ancillary Resource Centre (ARC) at www.oup.com/he/MacLean3e For Instructors An Instructor’s Manual provides chapter summaries, learning objectives, key terms and definitions, questions for discussion and for debate, in-class activities, and lists of teaching aids, including films, websites, and further readings. PowerPoint slides provide lecture outlines for each chapter. Test Generator provides multiple-choice, true-or-false, and short- answer questions for each chapter. For Students A Student Study Guide provides chapter outlines, learning objectives, key terms and definitions, short-answer and essay questions, self-testing quizzes, lists of additional resources, links to film and video clips. Flashcards of all key terms and definitions from the text help students with their studying. POLITICS  1 Studying Politics Thousands of Sudanese protesters flash their cell phone lights as they gather to march outside Sudan’s army headquarters in Khartoum on 25 April 2019 to demand transfer of political power from the military to a civilian administration. A few weeks earlier, the military had taken power by overthrowing long-serving President Omar al-Bashir. A few months after this photo was taken, the military and protesters worked out a power-sharing arrangement and signed a constitutional declaration to create a transitional government. OZAN KOSE/AFP/Getty Images Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: distinguish the various approaches used in political studies; understand how politics affects our daily lives; consider the coexisting pressures of division and connection in a changing world; examine politics at the international and the domestic levels; consider what it means to be a citizen in Canada. Introduction Welcome to this textbook and to the study of politics. We hope that this book not only broadens your understanding of the field but also stirs some interest in the political world that surrounds you. Although this may be your first formal introduction to political studies, you probably think about its subject matter more than you realize. Politics is one of those areas in life that we cannot avoid. Even if we try our best to steer clear of it, we are affected by it in some way. The good news is that the more we get involved and become aware of the complexities of politics, the more we see ourselves as important actors in our political world. Being informed means being involved, and vice versa. There is an abundance of material about politics and government for us to consume. In this context, it is important to arm ourselves with the ability to practice “intellectual self-defence.” We can easily spend hours reading articles, listening to podcasts, and watching programs that offer descriptions and critiques about the world around us. It is imperative to develop the critical thinking skills to differentiate fact from fiction, proof from persuasion. Being informed and involved is essential to developing independence of mind. People are often cynical about politics. Perhaps they are convinced that their elected officials will never live up to their promises or that their own role in the political process is so insignificant that their contribution will never be felt. In reality, our input is much greater than we think and our involvement is crucial both to the functionality and legitimacy of the process and to the quality of policy outcomes. After all, if we cut ourselves off from the process entirely, how would we ever hold those elected officials to their promises? Healthy skepticism is a good thing—it keeps us informed and focused on improving our system. But cynicism without reflection and engagement really will not get us anywhere. It is better to be involved, and even critical, than to simply dismiss the entire process. This book takes a critical look at politics. Critical approaches question our assumptions about politics and power, the approaches we take to study these things, and the implications of existing power structures for people in societies. Throughout your political studies, you will be exposed to several critical theories that use different lenses in their quest to understand the political world, including feminism, Marxism, and post- colonial theory. These perspectives pose questions about traditional approaches to knowledge production, often on the grounds that traditional theories tend to be more inclusive of some voices than others and, therefore, perpetuate understandings of power and politics that value and empower some individuals and groups over others. For example, post- colonial theory reflects on the social, economic, and cultural legacies and implications of years of colonial rule. From left to right, Angela Merkel (Chancellor of Germany), Donald Trump (President of the United States), Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (President of Turkey), Vladimir Putin (President of Russia), Emmanuel Macron (President of France), and Xi Jinping (President of China). Power in the political world can take many forms, including leadership, personal influence, and economic and military strength. Boris Roessler/picture-alliance/dpa/AP Images Critical study, we believe, is part of a healthy examination of the world around us. But we do not stoop to cynicism. Rather, we view political studies as optimistic, a field that tries to build on success and to correct failures, with the ultimate goal of creating a better political world that represents the many interests within it. In this opening chapter, we will try to answer what may be the most important question you have going into the course: Why study politics? It is a basic question but one that affects everything we will touch on in the textbook. As well, this chapter will briefly introduce the chapters that follow; however, nothing here or anywhere in this book is the final word. (Politics is nothing if it is not about constant debate!) Each point outlined in the chapter’s learning objectives will also be examined in greater detail in other parts of the book, but this first chapter will serve as a general overview. Power and Politics To begin, we will look at one of the most important political ideas: power. How do you define power? As leadership? Certainly, the two terms seem to relate naturally to one another. Think about Canada’s Prime Minister Justin Trudeau or US President Donald Trump. Is there a more powerful individual in either country? The power held by political leaders derives from the authority conferred on them by law, by the mandate they hold as a result of the electoral process, and perhaps also from their own personal charisma that allows them to affect people and their beliefs and actions. power ability to achieve goals in a political system and to have others do as you wish them to Power can come from wealth, too; whether in our local communities or in the global system, economic wealth buys (literally and figuratively) power and authority. Or perhaps you think of power as the strength that comes along with weapons and armies. Human history shows the massive effect of military might in society. There are other ways of seeing power. Consider the Dalai Lama. He controls no military, has little wealth, and “led” a country (he handed his political power over to the Central Tibetan Administration in 2011) that many feel is not even independent; however, he has tremendous influence and attracts followers all over the world. Likewise, U2’s Bono also has political influence. He uses his celebrity toward a world crusade for human rights, fair development, and ecological balance. As a nod to this power, The Globe and Mail handed over editorial duties to Bono and fellow musician/activist Bob Geldof on 10 May 2010. In a well-regarded edition,1 the duo brought attention to the plight of Africa and the future of global organization. influence ability to change behaviour in others without exerting direct power over them Regardless of their personal fame and influence, people can be powerful, especially when they form groups. Political protests, marches, and sit-ins—all examples of “people power”—can create change. Often this political organization becomes more formalized, for example, into interest groups or action bodies, showing how power can be formed and used in still different ways. The forms of power discussed here do not represent an exhaustive list. But they do illustrate the point that there are many ways to think of power. The same can be said for the terms freedom, justice, and development. You can likely think of various interpretations of these concepts. Simply put, no single explanation is the only “correct” definition or indicative of all points of view. As we shall see in this book and in this course, power is inexorably tied to politics. That is one good reason why we started with a discussion of power, but it also helps us understand from the very beginning that we should prepare ourselves for many challenging views of what we think we already know. Why Study Politics? Political studies is just one of several disciplines presented to you as you begin your post-secondary studies.2 So why choose it? What can this course, and this text, tell you about your daily life and the world around you? What can you do with your studies once you graduate? political studies formal study of politics within and among nations Since you are reading this text and taking this course, it is already clear that the field of political studies holds some interest for you. And it should: studying politics helps us understand more of our immediate surroundings, from what we see on the Internet or on TV to our direct involvement in the political process. You might think that you are not involved, but you will come to see that you are already politically engaged. Studying politics helps us understand how events and decisions that seem far removed from our lives actually affect us, our families, and our communities in ways we have not even thought about. Consider, for instance, these questions: What do people want out of life? What do countries try to provide for their citizens? How do we as individuals—and countries in the world arena—deal with others in our systems? Your activities and circumstances invariably affect your view of the political world. Some people can find “politics” in anything! Political studies also demonstrates how we organize ourselves in a social environment. It teaches us how some individuals and groups benefit from social and political institutions while others do not. Since politics is an essential part of our daily lives, it is important that we try to understand how humans organize themselves into communities and the effects these communities have on society as a whole. After all, politics allows for our collective survival. Without a formal organizing structure, we would be left to fend for ourselves and be pitted against each other. Some of you may be skeptical of this idea and may feel that we would be better off on our own rather than under the auspices of government. There is even a whole ideology—anarchism—that fits with this opinion. However, even anarchism represents some form of political order or organization, which serves our more general point: politics seeks order. government institutions and people responsible for carrying out the affairs and administration of a political system 1.1 Career Paths for Political Studies Graduates You likely won’t be surprised to learn that there are no postings for political scientists on most employment websites. Then again, this is the case for most university fields. Political studies, like most other disciplines in the social sciences and humanities, does not train its students for specific careers; because there are so many different directions that graduates may take, it would be impossible to identify a particular training area. Political studies students become skilled writers and develop competencies related to communications, research, problem-solving, and critical thinking. Critical thinking is not just about debating or finding fault. It is a response to arguments, positions, evidence, experience, and observations with considered opinions about a proper course of action. Analytical thinkers take complex ideas and issues and break them apart to get at more deep-seated questions, such as why events take place, how situations can be improved, and how we come to know what we do. The opportunities for students of politics are as wide as one’s imagination. Some pursue graduate education at the master’s and doctoral level to carry out research and teaching in  political science. Others use their degrees to follow additional professional accreditation, such as the law, journalism, or commerce. Politics can be useful for many political careers, including positions in public service, health administration, or policy-making, as government liaison workers, or even as politicians. Some careers are a natural fit for political studies. Though debate and conflict over power and authority are inevitable in human communities, so too are attempts to resolve differences. Although politics is about both conflict and conflict resolution, humans are by nature competitive creatures who rely—for better or worse—on their political communities to ensure their personal survival. conflict differences in preferred outcomes among social groups conflict resolution process in domestic or international affairs that attempts to reconcile antagonism (either existing or potential) through the use of mediation and negotiation What Is Politics? As much as politics seeks order, modern political life often results in conditions that are anything but equal or fair. Indeed, politics in contemporary life is often marked by discord and controversy. This has been the case since individuals first began organizing themselves into political units. Nevertheless, one of the fundamental goals of politics is fairness in society. However elusive this goal may be, politics has always involved controversy as well as co-operation, debate as well as accord. In the seventeenth century, the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes argued that, without society and the political authority that accompanied it, humans would suffer in what he termed a “state of nature,” or a situation marked by an “everyone for themselves” frame of mind. Life would be, in Hobbes’s view, “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”3 He suggested that shaping human society—the process of socialization—is essential for the security of life itself. Politics, then, is a response to the natural tendency among human beings to come together and create larger organized groups. An integral part of that tendency is to seek a way to allocate the benefits and responsibilities that accompany the creation of a social unit. Politics and the sharing of benefits are also essential for the preservation of life. socialization process whereby individuals act in a social manner; creation of social and political authority and rules to regulate behaviour and thus permit operation of social units One way to see how the “political” exists in society is to consider how important decisions that affect a political community are made. Individual citizens who vote in an election or attend town hall meetings are part of a broader process that leads to decision-making by political authorities. Indeed, lack of participation is also significant because it can be viewed as tacit agreement with the status quo. decision-making mechanism or pattern of relations involving different levels of government in which determinations and judgments regarding the governance of the political system are made (sometimes referred to as the black box)  These actions, of course, are just one part of the decision-making process, which results in policies, laws, rules, and regulations that guide and shape society. This process is critical to the survival of a political community because it provides a framework that enables all members of the society to decide what acceptable conduct is. To create the famous cover image for his book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes worked with the artist Abraham Bosse. Note how the giant is made up of bodies, signifying how politics is formed of the people. Harold Lasswell neatly described the fundamental question of politics with the title of his book Politics: Who Gets What, When, How.4 Lasswell was one of the so-called Chicago School of political scientists, a group that approached political studies as a scientific endeavour. Many have come to define political studies in terms of Lasswell’s title because it alludes to the notion of power in the political sphere and, more to the point, who holds it. The book examines how the essential public goods that result from political life are distributed to members of society. In every civilization (historical or present), political power has been used to gain control over wealth and resources. public goods resources that are present in a political system whose use by one individual should not affect use by others Understanding public goods is essential to the study of politics. Public goods are the various benefits that a government should provide to all its citizens: social welfare, economic efficiency, security from external attack, public safety, political freedoms and opportunity, etc. Not surprisingly, the type of government that holds authority will in many ways dictate the relative access to these public goods. For instance, political freedom is more widespread in liberal democracies than in authoritarian regimes (other important distinctions between these two systems are discussed in Chapter 4). Politically speaking, the term freedom can be broadly categorized and applied to political systems around the world. Different studies of political freedom, democracy, human rights, and openness in societies have been undertaken, but one of the most comprehensive is conducted by the international non- governmental organization (NGO) Freedom House (https://freedomhouse.org/), which identifies states as “free,” “partly free,” or “not free.” Some have found fault with this approach, but few such organizations have been involved in this work for so long. liberal democracy political system based on freedom and the principle that governance requires the assent of all citizens through participation in the electoral process, articulation of views, and direct or indirect representation in governing institutions authoritarianism political system requiring absolute obedience to a constituted authority  non-governmental organization (NGO) non-profit group organized on a local, national, or international level state recognized political unit, considered to be sovereign, with a defined territory and people and a central government responsible for administration It is useful to consider politics as a competition for scarce resources. Whether they are immediate and tangible goods such as money, food, or minerals or more intangible goods such as power and influence, these resources are available to a political community in finite amounts. The method of distributing them results in inevitable divisions between and within different social strata in society: rich and poor, powerful and weak. Politics also leads to competition for other non-material objectives. For instance, not everyone shares the same values or recognition; some will have more of a participatory role in their political system and see their particular values upheld over others, while some feel marginalized. Although resources are limited and competition for them is great, the role of political authority is to allocate them to members of society. Allocation takes place through a system of decision-making. Political actors, faced with the need to provide their citizens with public goods (or to protect those goods), consider the best avenues through which their political and economic system can generate and distribute public goods. Numerous specific goals are available to actors in a political system; decisions, therefore, are an indispensable component of political life. As members of society, we often spend our time concentrating on the outcomes of decisions at the expense of understanding the process that facilitated them. But to truly understand the full extent of the determining factors that lead to such results, we must analyze the process of decision- making. Once decisions have been made, they are restricted or enforced by the rule of law. While relationships and choice in society may be considered natural consequences of human interaction, specialized agencies such as government are not; they are the products of human invention. Specialized agencies such as bureaucracies and armed forces are necessary to provide a means of regulating and maintaining society. In their own way, governments make decisions that govern societal relationships.  Frequently throughout the text, and no doubt in your class discussions, you will come across references to “the state.” Sometimes, the terms state and government are used interchangeably but they actually mean different things. The state is distinguishable from every other institution in society in that it alone holds access to the legitimate use of force within its territorial jurisdiction. International law makes reference to the sovereignty of states, which means that the state is the highest authority in the land and cannot be overruled by any other individual or group. It is the state that holds the authority and legitimacy to make and enforce decisions about the distribution of resources in a society. The elected government is a part of the state apparatus, albeit an impermanent one in the sense that elected governments come and go while the state itself remains intact over time. For example, there is always a government of Canada, although the political party with the mandate to direct this organization changes depending on the results of elections. Modern states in the Western world are based on the concepts of defined territorial boundaries, rule of law, sovereignty, and legitimacy, and include bureaucracies, judicial systems, and militaries. Previous state systems, defined by kinship, monarchy, religion, or feudal rule, were replaced by the modern Western state, first in Europe in the 1600s. Modern state rule in the Western context is impersonal; everyone, at least in theory, is equally subject to the rules of the state, including state actors themselves. The state’s capacity to collect and spend taxes gives it the means to redistribute wealth and provide services, like health care and employment insurance. feudal rule political or social system based on the relationship between landholders and those with permission to use and live on the property in exchange for fees, political loyalties, or other commitments Despite the necessity of government and the positive good the state can provide, politics is often regarded in a pejorative way. We hear of how things reflect “politics as usual” or the “politics of the situation” to describe events that have a negative impact on individuals and groups. But while politics has its negative aspects, political studies considers much more than that. It looks at competition, conflict resolution, resources and justice allocation, the exercise of power and choice, and means of understanding. Political studies is, and has to be, a deliberately complex subject, given the wide array of issues to which it must attend. Figure 1.1 Freedom in the World 2018 Since 1973, Freedom House has published an annual report that rates countries for their openness and freedom. This map shows changes (positive and negative) across the world. Source: Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2018: Democracy in Crisis: https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2018. Approaches Used in the Study of Politics The study of politics is about the description and explanation of how things are, as well as a consideration of how things ought to be (on this last point we can see again the “progressive” nature of politics, which seeks to improve how we do things). In this way, political studies strives to contribute to a better environment for citizens and political units. Political studies is a systematic examination of events in society. As a discipline, there is no consensus on how this analysis should be accomplished, resulting in a rather fragmented but vibrant and challenging field of study with several important subfields of interest. It is common for political science departments in Canada to be organized according to four subthemes: Canadian politics, comparative politics, international relations or global politics, and political philosophy. We discuss these subfields briefly here. Political philosophy has a rich history, stemming from the roots of the early philosophies of Aristotle and Plato. Aristotle, in fact, thought that politics was inherently human: “That man is more of a political animal than bees or any other gregarious animals is evident.”5 He meant that, while other creatures on earth may live in groups, only humans possess logos, the Greek word for both “language” and “reason.” Therefore, we humans can consider both “just” and “unjust” actions and ultimately strive to make our political systems serve us better. We are, then, political animals by nature and political philosophy tends to seek not only to describe what is, but also to make normative claims about what ought to be. We return to the topic of political philosophy more substantively in Chapter 3, where we consider the contributions of a number of political philosophers to the study of politics over time. Canadian politics focuses on what is happening politically within Canada’s territorial borders. Canada’s two defining political institutions— Parliament and federalism—tend to frame debates about policy and governance, political competition, identity, and justice and fairness. Common topics for study include the concentration of power in the political executive, co-operation and conflict between federal, provincial, municipal, and Indigenous governments, the distribution of wealth among provinces with very different economies, the role of the courts in advancing rights, and social policy issues like the legalization of cannabis and doctor-assisted dying. International relations studies political, economic, and legal developments on the global stage, as well as the relationships between countries that are affected by these developments. As we discuss later in this chapter, and more fully in Chapter 11, studies of international relations are framed by three dominant theoretical perspectives: realism, liberalism, and global Marxism. Further to this, the issue of security, and the range of threats to security—including terrorism, food shortage, environmental disaster, and economic uncertainty—have become increasingly of primary concern for those who study global politics. Comparative politics, which is the focus of Chapters 9 and 10, is a methodological approach that uses empirical comparisons to understand countries and political phenomena better. For example, we can better understand Canada’s federal system of government if we compare it to other federal states and note similarities and differences. Similarly, a fuller awareness of particular pressing issues, such as climate change, is possible when we see how different countries are addressing—or effectively ignoring—these problems. Historically, most students and scholars of political science have identified more with one of these four subfields than the others. However, there is increasing awareness that these subfields are not distinct silos and should not be treated as such. For example, to understand Canada’s role in the world and the factors affecting its foreign policy, it is necessary to understand domestic factors that contribute to policy outcomes. The first university departments of political studies (also called government, politics, or political science) appeared in the late 1800s, primarily in the United States and United Kingdom. These departments reflected a need to understand more rigorously the nature of political philosophy and governance. Political studies is one discipline in the social sciences; others include economics, education, sociology, law, psychology, anthropology, social geography, and linguistics. Each of these disciplines has its own areas of interest and its own theories, concepts, and frameworks. Furthermore, each of these disciplines informs us about important aspects of our lives as social beings. Political studies is concerned with the governance of social units, the allocation of power and responsibility, and the relationship among political actors in society. social sciences scientific study of human society and social relationships Politics can be studied from the vantage point of political institutions, human associations, or ideologies. As the relatively new discipline of political studies developed and matured during the twentieth century, several competing approaches (or frameworks of analysis) were developed and fostered by political scientists. These and other methods suggest alternative ways to view the world. The destruction caused by World War II—such as that shown here in Cologne, Germany—led political scientists to consider ways that politics could contribute to the cause of peace. Throughout this book, we will consider the massive effect this war had on politics. The oldest and most common method is called the analytical approach. This perspective views political studies as an empirical discipline based on experiment and observation rather than a science and as a comprehensive field rather than one that can be broken down into parts. Sometimes called the traditional approach, this method argues that facts cannot be separated from values: human values and convictions are just another part of political life that cannot be fragmented from the field. The implication here is that any observer of political activity will have his or her own view and bias, which will affect his or her analysis. It is impossible to observe events in an objective manner; therefore, in this view, political studies can never be a scientific discipline. analytical approach  perspective that views politics as an empirical discipline rather than a science; argues that politics cannot be broken down into parts but must be seen comprehensively empirical analysis based not on concepts and theory but on what can be observed or experimented upon traditional approach method in politics drawing heavily on fields of law, philosophy, and history and relying on subjective evaluation of the observer; also called the analytical approach The analytical approach had its challengers. In an effort to make the field more precise, the behaviouralists emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in American political studies departments. They focused on the “tangible” aspects of political life rather than on the value-laden perspective of the analytical approach. The objective of the behaviouralists was to establish a discipline that was “scientific” and objective: political science. They argued that human behaviour was at the heart of all political activity; hence, humans should be the centre of research. Behaviouralists concentrated on the scientific method, using variables, theories, axioms, and hypotheses in their research. behaviouralism perspective that concentrates on the “tangible” aspects of political life rather than values in an effort to establish a discipline that is “scientific” and objective The behaviouralist “school,” however, was criticized for its attention to the scientific method, which many thought came at the expense of other important issues, such as values and ethics. Many political scientists argued that, in its attempt to be truly scientific, political studies had come to neglect the fact that values were an intrinsic element of political life (i.e., the very focus of the behaviouralist approach—the human being—is steeped in values, opinions, beliefs, and views of the world). After all, we are all affected by what we think, so our “reality” is influenced by our own views or biases, which results in a sort of subjective reality. Furthermore, the behaviouralist approach had trouble accounting for so-called irrational actions. Scientific rigour, then, could only go so far in interpreting politics. A new approach, post-behaviouralism, was a reaction to the negative aspects of behaviouralism. Post-behaviouralists tried to reconcile the problems encountered by behaviouralism by taking into account values and ideology. People were once more the focus of attention, and sentiment and personal views were again added to the mix of analysis. subjective reality perspective of reality that is influenced by our personal experiences and biases post-behaviouralism approach that attempted to reconcile the problems of behaviouralism by allowing for values and ideology in its analysis Nevertheless, still others continued to disagree with the scientific method of both the behaviouralists and the post-behaviouralists and also rejected the analytical approach as too broad. Such theorists looked at specific aspects of politics. One approach, structural-functionalism, concentrated on the role of political structures and their functions in society. What, for example, is the role and effect of the legislature? How does the bureaucracy affect politics? How and where does the judiciary fit in? Structural-functionalists represent a group within a larger classification of researchers called systems theorists. These analysts view politics as a system of interaction, binding political structures such as government to individual action. Systems theory argues that politics is a dynamic process of information flows and responses that encompasses political institutions, groups, and individuals. Systems theorists try to understand this process of decision and reaction among various types of political actors. structural-functionalism approach that focuses on the role of political structures and their functions in society systems theory approach that views politics as a system of interaction, binding political structures such as government to individual action; argues that politics is a dynamic process of information flows and responses that encompasses political institutions, groups, and individuals 1.2 Behaviouralism after World War II The Soviet Union’s successful launch of Sputnik 1 not only heated up the space race with the United States but also inadvertently changed the study of politics. Governments and universities began to put more money into science than they had in the past, leaving fields like political studies to question their future. In fact, the term political science came under some scrutiny for its lack of a scientific basis. It was at this time that the behaviouralist approach to politics emerged, promising an objective method of predicting and explaining behaviour. It used the scientific method of observing, testing, and measuring events in an effort to establish hypotheses and conclusions about political events. Criticisms of political science and behaviouralism continued, however, as it became increasingly clear how difficult it is to quantify human behaviour. The approach fell into some disrepute, leading many to abandon the goals of prediction and universal assessment. The methods used in behaviouralism, however, remained in several streams of political science research: testing, hypothesis, conceptual development, comparison, and falsification. Political science will never be like the natural sciences because humans act in variable, irrational, and sometimes infinite ways; however, the methods shared among the fields continue to be useful. Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, was launched in 1957. It transmitted data to earth for 22 days, and circled the planet for three months before burning up on re-entry.  For political economists, another group of political scientists, the major drawback to all of these approaches is that they do not focus on the relationship between power and wealth, or politics and economics. According to political economy, an approach that views “interests” as paramount, political studies is the relationship among people, government, and the economy. How those interests are identified and pursued shows the fundamental power and influence in a political system, particularly because those interests tend to be focused on resources that are quite scarce. Political economy is an inherently “critical” approach to the study of politics; in many ways, it brings us back to what Lasswell had to say about “who gets what, when, how” in politics. Because governments affect many of the economic particulars of our lives, and of those around us, political economists explore the role that governments have in both the political and economic spheres. Political economists also pay close attention to other non-governmental institutions, such as banks and corporations, which are important economic actors. political economy approach that views political and economic spheres as harmonious and mutually dependent perceptions of the world, and political studies as focusing on the relationship among people, government, and the economy Chapters 2 and 3 of this book will delve into political concepts, philosophies, and approaches in much greater detail. But, simply put, all forms of political studies are concerned with five pervasive and related questions: 1. What is the political issue at hand? 2. Who is involved? 3. How did the events unfold? 4. Why did the events take place? 5. How was society affected by these events? As you can now see, there are various ways to try to answer these questions. A change in government, for example, might be explained in terms of different parties, methods, or ideologies; institutional transformation; individual personalities; or the result of the political system itself. For instance, the Canadian general election of 2015 resulted in a majority government for the Liberals after nearly 10 years of Conservative government. As a result, the government’s identity, structure, functions, and decision-making took on a new approach. (We’ll look closely at majority and minority governments in Chapter 7.) Even though these changes may have seemed obvious, political scientists still asked these questions in their analysis of Canadian politics. This book will introduce you to a wide variety of approaches, but we will find at least some agreement on the fundamental questions posed. Despite the fact that many different political approaches are considered here, this book does have a central methodology. Using these five questions as a baseline, we use three main forms of analysis. First, we explore how politics is integral to modern life; we cannot separate ourselves from the political in our society. Political decisions and events have a direct implication on our livelihoods and relationships in our communities. After all, a primary motivating factor for forming groups is to improve and preserve the conditions of what might be termed “the good life”—security, prosperity, and fairness. We have introduced this idea already, but will come back to it throughout the text. Second, this book takes a comparative approach, a wide-ranging method that looks at many aspects of political systems and processes, including government structures, political culture, socialization, interests in society, political parties, and policy.6 Though it is directed to a Canadian audience, this book’s focus is not exclusively Canadian or even North American. Instead, we use examples and case studies from around the world, from Latin America to Europe, Africa, and Asia. This gives us a cross-section of different political systems and viewpoints that can be placed in the context of the Canadian experience. This approach is part of a whole field of political studies called (not surprisingly) comparative politics, or the comparative method. Simply put, it is one thing to understand a political system or a country on its own, in absolute terms. It is another entirely, however, to see that system or country in relative terms. We learn so much more about how political systems are used by comparing them with others or over time. Furthermore, if we want to understand our own political environment and avoid ethnocentrism, we must look at other examples.  comparative approach method of political analysis that compares different systems of political authority based on system type, time period, or form of leadership ethnocentrism belief that one’s culture or group is superior to others or that other cultures or groups must be examined in relation to one’s own There are various comparative methods, including comparing more than one country at a given time period, comparing different systems over time, and comparing individual systems as they change over time. In terms of the last method, think about how Canadian political parties have changed over the last century. Different types of comparative analysis include most similar systems and most different systems. The former involves systems that appear to be the same but have variables that can be identified as differences. An example is Canada and Australia, which share many analogous features. But Australia’s elected Senate may cause different outcomes for electoral politics or legislation than Canada’s appointed Senate does. Most different systems analysis looks at systems that lack similar features in an effort to explain why shared political outcomes occur. Canada and China have very different political systems, but researchers would be interested in how a shared result—say, growth in international investment—came about in each country. Both methods produce important conclusions.7 most similar systems method of comparative analysis that examines political systems that have many common features in an effort to identify different variables. most different systems method of comparative analysis that examines political systems that share no (or few) common features yet have similar outcomes The third and final methodology of this text involves attention to several levels of political life. Various levels of analysis include the individual, groups, the state, and the international system. Our assumption here is that we get a better view of a problem or phenomenon if we try to consider several perspectives. Think about how limited our view of a painting would be if we looked at only one corner of the image or how little we would understand about how an airplane works if we examined only the flaps. However important that perspective or information may be, it is not comprehensive. Using levels of analysis, we recognize the complexity of political studies. Of course, we can never fully understand every element in a political event; there is just too much at play. Yet our decision to focus on an aspect of a political event acknowledges that our analysis will be only part of a greater whole. Our focus on several levels shows the comparative nature of this textbook and provides a more rounded introduction to the complex and ever-changing field of political studies. levels of analysis approach to political studies that suggests that accurate analysis must be inclusive of international, domestic, and individual arenas of interaction Political Studies and Our Daily Lives We often do not consider the political aspect of our daily lives unless we are faced with a situation that brings us directly into the political process, such as voting, filing an income tax return, or taking part in political protests. Yet politics surrounds us, even if we are unaware of it or feel that we do not know anything about it. When we think about it, politics really is part of our daily lives since it involves organizing ideas, influence, wealth, or power over others. We frequently hear of the “politics” of the family, organized religion, business, sport, or the entertainment industry. Indeed, all aspects of our common experiences seem to be influenced in some form by politics or political conflict, even in the case of people who think they know nothing about politics. The political nature of the family unit, religion, business, sport, or entertainment involves how these elements of our society are organized, who controls them, and how we may all benefit from (or perhaps miss out on) their collective gains. Politics also affects almost every part of our lives, from health and social care to laws that regulate our behaviour and to the provision of goods and services. As a result, it influences our activities within society in a very direct manner. Division and Connection in a Changing World Isaac Asimov, the American biochemist and science fiction writer, wrote: “The only constant is change, continuing change, inevitable change. No sensible decision can be made any longer without taking into account not only the world as it is, but the world as it will be.”8 Politicians would do well to heed Asimov’s advice and plan for both the present and the future. Political change is certainly a constant force in our era. Extraordinary changes in our political environment include shifting global security threats, new political forces at home and abroad, a better understanding of shared issues such as those facing the global environment and poverty, and a greater degree of interconnectivity. These changes have presented new challenges as well as opportunities as we begin to understand the nature of this new milieu of domestic and international political affairs. Increasingly, individuals, groups, and states are intricately connected to one another through political, economic, strategic, and cultural links. The globalization of the current era, where information about other systems and cultures is readily available to us from media sources, our educational system, and the Internet, affects both how we get information and how we use it. Yet at the same time, growing divisions are indicative of a complex and competitive environment for political and economic relations. Ethnic and religious conflict, the growing gap between rich and poor, economic protectionism, and political isolationism all reflect aspects of modern political life that are divisive and contrary. Often these problems are deeply rooted in efforts by political leaders to provide goods and services to their citizens, efforts that inevitably result in some inequity. Change is indeed constant, but it is also constantly affected by the forces of connection and division. globalization intensification of economic, political, social, and cultural relations across borders ethnic and religious conflict war or opposition among different racial, linguistic, or religious groups protectionism tendency of countries to safeguard their own economic sectors or industries through tariffs, quotas, or other forms of trade and investment legislation  An example of these forces working simultaneously occurred in Moscow in January 1990. Over 30,000 Muscovites lined up in Pushkin Square for a meal that cost approximately half an average worker’s daily wage but was hardly haute cuisine. Instead, it was a Big Mac combo, available for the first time in the (then) Soviet Union. This event still holds the record for the most meals served at a McDonald’s franchise in one day. Although it might not seem remarkable now, selling American- style fast food in a Communist country was a big story at the time. The arrival of McDonald’s in Russia brought two very divided political and economic systems together. Oddly, it represented a good example of globalization as well. Multinational corporations (MNCs) and a market- driven commodity met the closed order of Soviet-style politics. And there was clearly an “appetite” for it: 30,000 people do not wait for hours for something they do not want! multinational corporations (MNCs) corporate bodies that operate in more than one country Division and connection illustrate a basic paradox in current political life: we may think we are more closely linked with others in the world, but often our “understanding” leads to greater confusion and enmity. After all, just knowing someone does not mean we will get along with them, and (notwithstanding the enormous success of fast food in Communist countries) being exposed to new ideas will not necessarily mean we will accept them. As the Chinese Taoist text Tao Te Ching reminds us, “[T]he more you know, the less you understand.”9 This is not to suggest that we should just give up and not try to expand our knowledge of the world; it is simply a reminder that exposure does not ensure wisdom, understanding, or peace. In fact, looking at the world today, one is struck by the number of groups that seek to create their own nation-states—a goal that is inherently about division—in an era of unprecedented information and access to others. In short, division and connection are coexistent forces, and they remind us of the need to look both outward and inward. Customers order food at kiosks at a McDonald’s restaurant in Moscow in 2018. When the first McDonald’s opened in Moscow in January 1990, thousands of people lined up in the cold to buy a meal of this American-style fast food. 1.3 Involvement: Apathy to Action Successive generations have been criticized for their lack of interest in political affairs. This criticism is usually made by the preceding generation and is often based on a false nostalgia for the way things used to be. To label an entire generation as apathetic is both simplistic and unfair. Indeed, any generation has its share of those who get involved and those who do not. On the other hand, it is fair to say that political involvement today is different than it was in the past, specifically prior to the 1960s. During that decade, a unique change took place for a specific generation. As the baby boomers (those born between 1946 and 1964) became young adults, they reacted viscerally and harshly to the expectation that they would emulate their parents and grandparents. In short, their coming of age in the post-war period instilled in them a need to change the way we see politics. Deference to authority, an aggressive military stance, societal norms such as marriage and jobs at a certain age all were questioned and even rejected as people became involved in social movements, social justice, and calls for a more equitable global order.  Clearly, a quick scan of today’s world situation reveals that the 1960s did not alter everything. But much did change, such as matters regarding civil and women’s rights, environmental awareness, nuclear proliferation, government transparency, and a greater expectation that politics should serve the people rather than the other way around. Today’s younger generation is no less involved, from volunteer work to social media campaigns to active engagement in the traditional political process. The sheer quantity of information available to us now makes the 1960s demand for immediate change seem unachievable or even naive, but we should remember that any change takes time and that meaningful change probably requires action by groups of individuals who seek it. If we aspire to real progress, everyone must commit to political action rather than succumb to apathy. This kind of attitude didn’t push the civil rights movement! Domestic and International Politics Politics does not limit itself to borders, and political studies is not restricted to the study of our own nation-states. A truly comprehensive view of the world of political studies takes into account the domestic and the international. One of the important lessons we learn in political studies is that the borders between states do not necessarily divide them; countries can be intricately connected to one another in ways that seem to transcend nationality and national frontiers. In fact, it might be argued that certain parts of Canada are more connected to the United States than they are to each other. Political studies, then, recognizes the inherent relationship between domestic and international subject areas. Domestic politics is a subfield of political studies that concerns itself with the politics, governance, and political administration of national governments and individual countries. Depending on where you take your classes in political studies, the options available to you regarding domestic politics can take you far from your home country. In Canada, most departments of political studies have a concentration on Canadian politics; however, it is not unheard of to find courses on the politics of countries such as Cambodia, Switzerland, or Niger as well. Although these and other countries may not have full courses devoted to them in Canadian universities, they likely are dealt with in courses that cover Asian, European, or African politics. But were we to look at university course offerings in Phnom Penh, Bern, or Niamey, their countries would undoubtedly be the focus. Whether Canada would be listed among courses in those institutions is another question. The point here is that where you are will reflect highly on the areas that you are expected to study. We may be in Canada, but we are expected to know a little bit about European politics, a lot about American politics, and some more about other places too. Domestic politics restrains our focus to the country in question—its governing institutions, laws, economy, and relations with the outside world. That outside world is the realm of international politics. Often called international relations or world politics, this subfield takes a wider view of politics. Political relations among and between countries are as much an influence on our domestic frame of reference as what takes place “at home.” International politics is concerned with the social, environmental, economic, military, and cultural relations across the globe, whether they are across one border between two countries, within a geopolitical region, or widely dispersed around the globe. Specifically, this subfield examines the political aspects of these interactions. international politics study of foreign policy and relations among states and other actors at the international level; also called international relations Although most of the material in this text could be used by those interested in either domestic or international politics, there are not any artificial lines drawn to distinguish the subfields. Some sections of the text deal with government institutions and decision-making; others deal with international security and economics. But as we move through the subject matter, we will come to see the natural relationship between the two areas. Citizens and Canada When did the United Empire Loyalists come to Canada? Which four provinces first formed Confederation? Which province is officially bilingual? Don’t despair if you cannot answer these questions off the top of your head; most of us cannot. But these are the types of questions that new Canadians have to answer before they are granted citizenship. New immigrants to Canada must successfully pass a quiz on topics related to Canadian history, politics, economics, geography, and the privileges of citizenship. Although a passing “grade” is 75 per cent, the questions are not easy. Many citizens by birth would likely have trouble successfully completing the test. Indeed, a survey of more than 1,500 Canadians conducted by Forum Research in June 2019 found that only 12 per cent would have passed such a test and been granted citizenship.10 (If you want to check your citizenship suitability, here are the correct answers: 1775 to 1783; Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia; New Brunswick.) citizenship status of being a formal member of a state granted to people, by birth or naturalization, that comes with responsibilities and duties as well as rights What does citizenship actually mean? Are there things specific to Canadian citizenship? These are not questions we would commonly think about since they seem to be just part of being Canadian. Yet being Canadian means not being something—or someone—else. Aside from dual citizens, Canadians are not American, British, or French. Generally, citizenship is specific, and people are entwined with their birth nation or country of adoption. Citizenship denotes membership in a political system, complete with the rights and responsibilities of that membership. Usually citizenship is related to nationality or the national identity to which we assign ourselves. That said, some people relate themselves to a “nation” even if they are citizens of another country. Scots, Hausa-Fulani, or Cree people, for instance, may all be Canadian but still maintain their distinctive nationalities. We’ll return to the issue of nationality and nationalism later in this text. In any case, citizenship brings with it the protection of the state as well as a legal relationship with a country. Once people become citizens, they can receive a wide array of benefits. In Canada, for instance, this means a number of rights and freedoms (including legal rights, equality rights, mobility rights, Indigenous peoples’ rights, the right to peaceful assembly, freedom of thought, freedom of speech, and freedom of religion). With rights come responsibilities, and for Canadians that includes respecting others’ rights and freedoms, obeying the law, and preserving Canada’s heritage and environment. In short, citizenship is not a blank slate—it is a relationship between the state and the citizen to work together to protect and develop Canada. In addition to new Canadians by birth, approximately 160,000 people (or three-quarters of 1 per cent of the country’s population) become Canadian citizens in any given year. This number changes based on the priorities and preferences expressed by the federal government; however, it is a substantial number. Immigration is not a minor affair in Canada. Time spent in any major city or town shows the pluralistic and multicultural nature of Canadian society. Canadian society has been described as a mosaic, an image only truly recognized with all its pieces in place. Others, like York University political scientist Kenneth McRoberts, have called Canada “multinational,” marked most notably by its French and Indigenous “internal nations.”11 multiculturalism peaceful coexistence of multiple racial, cultural, or ethnic identities in one nation 1.4 Citizenship Quiz Questions on the Canadian Citizenship Test change frequently. Here are some study questions provided in the official study guide for the test, called Discover Canada: The  Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship. Even if some of the questions may be out of date by the time you read this book, trying the study questions will give you a sense of what new immigrants face. Answers are given at the end of the box. 1. What are three responsibilities of citizenship? a. Being loyal to Canada, recycling newspapers, serving in the navy, army or air force. b. Obeying the law, taking responsibility for oneself and one’s family, serving on a jury. c. Learning both official languages, voting in elections, belonging to a union. d. Buying Canadian products, owning your own business, using less water. 2. What is the meaning of the Remembrance Day poppy? a. To remember our Sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II. b. To celebrate Confederation. c. To honour prime ministers who have died. d. To remember the sacrifice of Canadians who have served or died in wars up to the present day. 3. How are members of Parliament chosen? a. They are appointed by the United Nations. b. They are chosen by the provincial premiers. c. They are elected by voters in their local constituency (riding). d. They are elected by landowners and police chiefs Answers 1. b 2. d 3. c Source: These three questions are from Discover Canada: The Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship Study Guide (2012), Citizenship and Immigration Canada, p. 52. Retrieved from PDF at www.canada.ca/content/dam/ircc/migration/ircc/english/pdf/pub/discover.pdf The nature of the course material means that we will spend a considerable amount of time examining what it means to be a citizen of Canada. Yet as this chapter has suggested, knowing what it means to be Canadian—or a citizen of any other country, for that matter—means knowing a bit about the rest of the world as well. Therefore, one goal of this text is to integrate our introduction to political studies so that we reflect both our national and international perspectives. Conclusion This chapter has introduced you to the discipline of political studies and acquainted you with the broad nature of political inquiry, our relationship to the political “world,” and our undeniable connection with the global framework of political relations. Political studies is about decisions and process, how decisions are made and in whose benefit. It is also as much about the resolution of conflict as it is about conflict itself. The following chapters explore some of these themes. Chapter 2 provides a more detailed account of the major concepts in political studies. Related closely to Chapter 2, Chapter 3 explores the main political philosophies and ideologies that form the basis of modern political studies. Chapter 4 introduces the role that government plays in our lives, including its different forms, schools of thought, and shared activities at all levels. Chapter 5 builds on the previous chapter, breaking government down into its specific parts and institutions. Chapter 6 examines the variety of political systems that exist in the world today. Chapters 7 and 8 consider the ways that we participate in our political system, from election votes to the impact of global media. Chapters 9 and 10 explore the distinctions between the developed and developing worlds, including some case studies of important examples from around the globe. Chapters 11, 12, and 13 look at the international nature of political studies, including foreign policy, international relations, security and strategic studies, and the international political economy. Finally, Chapter 14 provides a conclusion to the course and the text. Self-Assessment Questions 1. How might we distinguish among the different types of power in politics? 2. Why did Hobbes think that life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short” without government? 3. How does political studies fit with the other social sciences? 4. Why and how is politics such a central component of society? Can we become truly apolitical? Why or why not? 5. How are the forces of division and connection entwined in a globalized world? 6. How does immigration contribute to the multinational character of Canadian society? Weblinks Canadian Citizenship Test www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/canadian-citizenship/become- canadian-citizen/citizenship-test.html Canadian Political Science Association www.cpsa-acsp.ca Careers for Political Scientists www.cpsa-acsp.ca/guides.shtml Freedom House www.freedomhouse.org Further Reading Almond, Gabriel A. A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990. ———, G. Bingham Powell, Jr, Russell J. Dalton, and Kaare Strøm. Comparative Politics Today: A World View. 11th edn. London: Pearson, 2014. Aristotle. Politics. Translated by T.A. Sinclair. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1986. Asimov, Isaac. Asimov on Science Fiction. New York: Doubleday, 1981. Easton, David. The Political System. 2nd edn. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan, Or, the Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil. Edited by Michael Oakeshott. New York: Collier Books, 1962. Laozi. Tao Te Ching. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1963/1976. Lasswell, Harold. Politics: Who Gets What, When, How. New York: Meridian Books, 1958. Przeworski, Adam, and Henry Teune. The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry. New York: Wiley, 1970. Seymour, Michel, ed. The Fate of the Nation-State. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2004. Film and Video Clips Go to our companion website at www.oup.com/he/MacLean3e to access video clips related to the content of this chapter.  2 Finding a Common Vocabulary Political Concepts Political vocabulary expressed on a wall in the suburbs of Paris, France. Frédéric Soltan/Corbis via Getty Images  Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: define and explain concepts relating to political organization, action, and values; understand and use key terms in the vocabulary of political studies; identify the connections between the state and society; understand the difference and links between agency and structure; give examples of the significance and real-world applicability of these concepts. Introduction As you have probably already noticed, post-secondary education comes with new challenges, responsibilities, opportunities, freedoms, and expectations. It also comes with a new vocabulary containing the specialized terms that we use in our classes and studies. Like all disciplines, political studies has its own language that distinguishes it from other fields of study. This vocabulary is important because it allows us to avoid unnecessary misunderstandings and engage in meaningful and effective discussions. Furthermore, it helps to shape our identities as scholars of politics and to create a mental picture of some of the more significant ideas used in political analysis. Concepts are general notions or abstract ideas encapsulated in a specialized vocabulary.1 The fact that this language is specialized is crucial, for political studies often devises distinctive interpretations of terms that might otherwise be understood differently. For instance, as explained later in this chapter, the manner in which we consider the concept of the nation in politics and the way we think about the term in everyday life are somewhat different.2 Just as importantly, the ability to distinguish one kind of right (say, human) from another (civil) becomes important in both theory and practice. concept general idea emerging from events or instances This is not to say that all