Science, Technology & Society in Modern Ages (GEC08) PDF

GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES Overview this marked the...

GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES Overview this marked the beginning of The Modern Age, or modernity, is the post massive changes medieval era, a wide span of time marked in the world. in part by technological innovations, urbanization, scienti c discoveries, and Though less globalization. The Modern Age is generally political, the split into two parts: the early and the late Industrial Overview modern periods. Revolution had Objectives equally far- The early modern period began with reaching Gutenberg’s invention of the movable type consequences. It printing press in the late 15th century and did not merely Renaissance ended in the late 18th century. Thanks to change the way Gutenberg’s press, the European goods were population of the early modern period saw produced—it also The Medici rising literacy rates, which led to Family fundamentally educational reform. Gutenberg’s machine changed the also greatly enabled the spread of economic, social, knowledge and, in turn, spurred the and cultural Renaissance Humanism Renaissance and the Protestant framework of its Reformation. During the early modern time. The Francesco period, transportation improved, politics Industrial Petrarch became more secularized, capitalism Revolution spread, nation-states grew more powerful, doesn’t have clear Giovanni and information became more widely start or end dates. Boccaccio accessible. Enlightenment ideals of reason, However, during rationalism, and faith in scienti c inquiry the 19th century, Renaissance Art slowly began to replace the previously several crucial dominant authorities of king and church. inventions—the Leonardo da internal Vinci Huge political, social, and economic combustion changes marked the end of the 18th engine, steam- Michelangelo century and the beginning of the late powered ships, modern period. During the late modern and railways, Donatello period, the Industrial Revolution began in among others— England at around 1759 and combined led to innovations Raphael with the American Revolution in 1776 and in various the French Revolution in 1789. Eventually, industries. For SLSU use only 23 fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES Objectives At the end of the lesson, you should be able Brahe, Kepler, Galileo and Newton to about the motion of the planets and other heavenly bodies. ➡ outline the key events that occurred during the early and late modern ➡ understand the impact of Industrial ages. Revolution in the current situation of our society. ➡ discuss the scienti c ideas of some early scientists such as Copernicus, ➡ describe the technological inventions during the Industrial Revolution. Lecture Notes Early Modern Ages. It also referred to as modern science during the early modern the post-medieval period, is the period period, when developments in of European history between the end of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology the Middle Ages and the beginning of (including human anatomy) and chemistry the Industrial Revolution, roughly the late transformed the views of society about 15th century to the late 18th century. The nature. beginning and end of the early modern period are marked by important changes It is a in ideas, society, religion, economics and drastic politics. change in scienti c During the early modern period, which thought included what some have labeled the that took Scienti c Revolution, the social and place intellectual barriers that divided the during the mechanical arts from what was sometimes 16th and being labeled science continued to be 17th centuries. A new view of nature overcome. Building on inventions, such as emerged during the Scienti c Revolution, the printing press, gunpowder, and new replacing the Greek view that had navigational techniques that had dominated science for almost 2,000 years. originated in the late Middle Ages, the Science became an autonomous early modern period saw a dramatic discipline, distinct from both philosophy expansion of world trade and commercial and technology, and it came to be activity that some have labeled a regarded as having utilitarian goals. By the commercial revolution. end of this period, it may not be too much to say that science had replaced Christianity as the focal point of European Scienti c Revolution. It was a series of civilization. events that marked the emergence of For SLSU use only 24 fi fi fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES The change to the medieval idea of 1543 is a good beginning point for the science occurred for the following Scienti c Revolution. Throughout the reasons: West, modern science began to take shape in many ways. 1. Seventeenth century scientists and philosophers were able to collaborate Nicholaus Copernicus (1473-1543). He with members of the mathematical and was born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, a astronomical communities to effect city in north- advances in all elds. central Poland. Copernicus was 2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of born into a family medieval experimental methods for of well- to-do their work and so felt the need to merchants, and devise new methods (some of which after his father’s we use today). death, his uncle– soon to be a 3. Academics had access to a legacy of bishop–took the boy under his wing. He European, Greek, and Middle Eastern was given the best education of the day scienti c philosophy that they could and bred for a career in canon (church) use as a starting point (either by law. At the University of Krakow, he studied disproving or building on the liberal arts, including astronomy and theorems). astrology, and then, he was sent to Italy to study medicine and law. Copernicus later studied at the University of Padua and in Among the formally educated, if not 1503 received a doctorate in canon law among the general population, traditional from the University of Ferrara. He returned science was transformed by the new to Poland, where he became a church heliocentric, mechanistic, and administrator and doctor. In his free time, mathematical conceptions of Copernicus, he dedicated himself to scholarly pursuits, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton. Historians of which sometimes included astronomical science are increasingly reluctant to work. describe these changes as a revolution, since this implies too sudden and complete an overthrow of the earlier Toward the close of 1542, Copernicus was model. Aristotle’s authority gave way very seized with apoplexy and paralysis. He was slowly, and only the rst of the great presented with the nal printed pages of scientists mentioned above did his work in his De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium the period under consideration. Still, the (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Renaissance made some important Spheres) on the very day that he died, contributions toward the process allowing him to take farewell of his life's of paradigm shift, as the 20th-century work. He is reputed to have awoken from a historian of science Thomas Kuhn called stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, major innovations in science. Publication and then died peacefully, at the age of 70, of Copernicus’s heliocentric theory in in 1543. For SLSU use only 25 fi fi fi fi fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES Copernican Theory. Sometime between accounts for the precession of the 1508 and 1514, Nicolaus Copernicus equinoxes. Major aws in the work include wrote a short astronomical treatise his concept of the sun as the center of the commonly called the Commentariolus, or whole universe, not just the solar system, “Little Commentary,” which laid the basis and his failure to grasp the reality of for his heliocentric (sun-centered) system. elliptical orbits, which forced him to The work was not published in his lifetime. incorporate numerous epicycles into his In the treatise, he correctly postulated the system, as did Ptolemy. With no concept of order of the known planets, including gravity, Earth and the planets still revolved Earth, from the sun, and estimated their around the sun on giant transparent orbital periods relatively accurately. spheres. For Copernicus, his heliocentric theory Copernicus remained loyal to the was by no means a watershed, for it Ptolemaic tools and used the spheres in created as many problems as it solved. For order to explain the movements of the instance, heavy objects were always stars. He also thought that the movements assumed to fall to the ground because of the planets are composed of a number Earth was the center of the universe. Why of uniform circular movements, which would they do so in a sun-centered eventually create a non-circular path. system? He retained the ancient belief that Copernicus was obliged to abandon the circles governed the heavens, but his idea that the planets are made of a special evidence showed that even in a sun- material, ether, because for him the earth centered universe the planets and stars itself is a planet and is obviously not made did not revolve around the sun in circular of ether. He claimed that the movements orbits. Because of these problems and of the planets are uniform and circular others, Copernicus delayed publication of because of their spherical shape. his major astronomical work, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Libri In 1514, Copernicus distributed a VI, or “Six Books Concerning the handwritten book to his friends that set out Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs,” nearly his view of the universe. In it, he proposed all his life. that the center of the universe was not Earth, but that the sun lay near it. He also According to suggested that Earth's rotation accounted Copernicus’ for the rise and setting of the sun, the heliocentric movement of the stars, and that the cycle theory, the Earth of seasons was caused by Earth's and the planets revolutions around it. Finally, he (correctly) revolve around proposed that Earth's motion through the sun and while space caused the retrograde motion of the revolving around planets across the night sky (planets the sun, Earth, he sometimes move in the same directions as argued, spins on its axis daily. Earth takes stars, slowly across the sky from night to one year to orbit the sun and during this night, but sometimes they move in the time wobbles gradually on its axis, which opposite, or retrograde, direction). For SLSU use only 26 fl  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES In 1539, the Protestant leader Martin Luther denounced the new theory. The Catholic Church disregarded Copernicus' book until 1616, when it was included in the "Index": A list of prohibited books. The Catholic church even used Copernicus' book to correct the calendar (which we still use today). The Church did not object to the theory so long as the book was treated as no more than a mathematical explanation. Which does not really claim Tycho’s father was Otte Brahe, a member that the earth rotates around the sun. This of the Royal Court. His mother was Beate explanation also allowed Protestant Bille, also an important aristocrat. Tycho astronomers to use the theory. However, was the second of the couple’s 12 there were other objections to the theory children. Although we usually refer to that were not religious in nature. Most scientists by their surnames, in some cases astronomers and natural philosophers of we use their rst names – Galileo, for that period claimed that Copernicus' example. This is also the case with Tycho theory was scienti cally implausible and Brahe, who is usually referred to simply as raised many counter claims. Tycho, pronounced ‘Teeko.’ Tycho Brahe died aged 54 on October 24, 1601 in 1. Copernicus wrote a book that Prague. His premature death was probably summarizes his lifetime of caused by either a burst bladder or kidney observation on planets and stars, failure published just before his death. it was called ____. (A) the sun goes Something remarkable happened to Tycho around the earth (B) on the in his second year of life – he was revolutions of celestial spheres (C) kidnapped by his uncle and aunt, Jorgen heliocentric universe (D) why the sun Brahe and Inger Oxe, when his parents is the center were away from home. Tycho’s uncle and aunt were childless, and they believed that 2. The theory Copernicus developed of Jorgen was entitled to a lawful son and the cosmos, that the planets revolve heir to his estates. Tycho’s natural parents around the sun is called the ____ eventually agreed to this, so Tycho was theory. (A) geocentric (B) heliocentric raised by his uncle and aunt as if he were (C) cosmocentric (D) homocentric their own son. When his uncle died, Brahe inherited his wealth. Similarly, he inherited his biological father’s wealth when he Tycho Brahe (1546-1601). Tycho Ottesen died. This was quite a tidy amount. Brahe was born into a highly aristocratic, Research estimates that combined, this very wealthy family on December 14, wealth would be 1% of all of Denmark’s 1546. He was born in his parents’ large entire wealth- not shabby at all for one manor house at Knutstorp, in the Danish person! region of Scarnia, which is now in Sweden. For SLSU use only 27 fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES In April 1566, could not inherit Tycho’s estates or his coat aged 19, Tycho of arms. arrived back in On October 13, 1601, Tycho attended a Germany. On a banquet in Prague. As usual, he had plenty December to drink, but the meal carried on for a long evening he got time. Although desperate to urinate, he into argument did not leave the table – it would have with another been very impolite to leave the table Danish student before the meal was formally over. who, like him, was studying at the University of Rostock. The cause of the Brahe was long thought to have died from argument is not known. Sometimes it’s a bladder infection after politeness kept claimed they were arguing about which of him from excusing himself to use the them was the better mathematician, but bathroom during a royal banquet in this is probably a myth. No doubt alcohol October 1601, causing his bladder to played a part in the dispute – Tycho rupture. However, scientists who opened enjoyed dining and drinking heartily. After Brahe's grave in 1901 to mark the 300th further disagreements, the two students anniversary of his death claimed to nd fought a duel with swords, which resulted mercury in his remains, fueling rumors that in Tycho losing the front of his nose and the astronomer was poisoned. Some even picking up a permanent scar on his accused a jealous Kepler of the crime. forehead. A year later, he returned to Denmark, where he began experimenting Separately, tests revealed that Brahe's with metal ttings to disguise his nose’s famously "silver" prosthetic nose was dis gurement. He wore a skin-colored actually made out of brass. metal prosthetic for the rest of his life. Important natural events turned Tycho At the age of 25, Tycho committed a from law to astronomy. Tycho’s interest in serious social offense; he took a woman astronomy began with the solar eclipse of who was not born an aristocrat as his August 21, 1560. In Copenhagen this partner. It was illegal for the young couple eclipse was barely noticeable – less than to marry in the usual way. However, half of the sun was covered. The eclipse provided they lived together for three inspired Tycho not because it was years, their partnership would be spectacular, but because astronomers had recognized as a legal marriage. They did predicted exactly when it would happen. this and became husband and wife. Tycho was fascinated, and wanted to learn Tycho’s wife was Kirsten Hansen, daughter how he too could make predictions like of a Lutheran minister. Tycho and Kirsten this. He built his own observatory on an had eight children, six of whom survived to island (the King of Denmark gave him the adulthood. The form of marriage between island and some additional money just for the couple meant their children were that purpose). Tycho named his island commoners, not entitled to enjoy any of observatory Uraniburg-Urania after the the privileges of the nobility. Also, they muse of astronomy. For SLSU use only 28 fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES Tycho’s System. universe while the other planets within the He established a solar system revolve around the sun. In theoretical model order to help prove that geocentrism was of the solar correct, Brahe extended an offer to system known to German astronomer Johannes Kepler to us nowadays as join him In his island. This offer may have Tychonic System cost Brahe his life. or Tychonian Model Of The Solar System, which 1. Where did Tycho Brahe carry out his basically combined the mathematical astronomical observation? bene ts of the Copernican System (A) On a mountain (B) On an island (Heliocentrism) with the philosophical (C) In a cave (D) In a desert bene ts of Aristotelian-Ptolemaic System (Geocentrism). 2. Tycho Brahe believed that: (A) The In 1575, Brahe built an enormous Earth revolved around the moon but observatory in an island offered to him by all the other planets around the sun. King Frederick II, where he kept (B) The sun revolved around the meticulous observations of the heavens. Earth but all the other planets around While most astronomers only focused on the moon. (C) The moon revolved observing heavenly bodies at speci c, around the Earth but all the other unusual points in their orbits, Brahe planets around the moon. (D) The intently tracked them in their entire visible sun revolved around the Earth but all orbit across the sky, creating the most the other planets around the sun. precise observations made at the time. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). He was Brahe was extremely limited in his view of born on December the universe, and his observations relied 27, 1571 in n Weil on what he could see with the naked eye. der Stadt, However, Brahe was able to construct Wurttemberg, in the instruments which aided these Holy Roman Empire observations. The armillary spheres (also of German known as a spherical astrolabe) were able Nationality. He was to physically represent a model of the sky, a sickly child and his enabling him to develop celestial maps of parents were poor. planetary movement. He made the most But his evident accurate measurements of planetary intelligence earned positions, which is especially admirable him a scholarship to the University of Tubingen given that it was made before the advent to study for the Lutheran ministry. There he was of the telescope. introduced to the ideas of Copernicus and delighted in them. In 1596, while a In Tycho's Model of solar system, the idea mathematics teacher in Graz, he wrote the rst of geocentrism and heliocentrism were outspoken defense of the Copernican system, combined; that is, Earth is the center of the the Mysterium Cosmographicum. For SLSU use only 29 fi fi fi fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES As a university student, he studied the Three Laws of Planetary Motion. Kepler Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’ obtained Brahe's data after his death theories of planetary ordering. Copernicus despite the attempts by Brahe's family to (1473-1543) believed that the sun, not the keep the data from him in the hope of earth, was the center of the solar system, a monetary gain. There is some evidence theory that contradicted the prevailing that Kepler obtained the data by less than view of the era that the sun revolved legal means; it is fortunate for the around the earth. development of modern astronomy that he was successful. Utilizing the voluminous In 1600, Kepler went to Prague to work for and precise data of Brahe, Kepler was Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe because eventually able to develop the rst two he realized that Tycho's work could settle laws of planetary motion in 1609 and the the question one way or the other. Tycho third law a decade after.His planetary laws assigned Kepler the task of understanding can be stated as follows; the orbit of the planet Mars, the movement of which t problematically into The Law of Ellipses. All planets move the universe as described by Aristotle and about the Sun in elliptical orbits, with the Ptolemy. It is believed that part of the center of the sun being located at one motivation for giving the Mars problem to focus. Kepler was Brahe's hope that its dif culty would occupy Kepler while Brahe worked to perfect his own theory of the solar system As Tycho’s assistant, they fought continuously, because Tycho refused to Kepler's First Law is illustrated in the image share his meticulous observations with shown above. The Sun is not at the center Kepler. These were observations which of the ellipse, but is instead at one focus Kepler desperately needed for his (generally there is nothing at the other continuing quest to establish the true focus of the ellipse). The planet then orbital motions of the planets. Tycho Brahe follows the ellipse in its orbit, which means and Johannes Kepler had totally disparate that the Earth-Sun distance is constantly backgrounds and temperaments. In spite changing as the planet goes around its of this, Tycho's painstaking and detailed orbit. For purpose of illustration we have observational data of the planet Mars, shown the orbit as rather eccentric; combined with Kepler's mathematical remember that the actual orbits are much genius, allowed Kepler to derive the Three less eccentric than this. Laws of Planetary Motion. Both Tycho and Kepler made signi cant contributions to The Law of Equal Areas. States that the the change in the prevailing world view of imaginary line joining the planet to the a geocentric universe. It was the beginning Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times of a systematic study that transformed as the planet travels around the ellipse. It Medieval thinking – alchemy became describes the speed at which any given chemistry and astrology led to astronomy. planet will move while orbiting the sun. For SLSU use only 30 fi fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES Kepler's T 12 R13 = second T 22 R23 law is illustrated As an illustration, consider the orbital in the period and average distance from sun gure at (orbital radius) for Earth and Mars as given the right. The line joining the Sun and in the table. Observe that the T2/R3 ratio is planet sweeps out equal areas in equal the same for Earth as it is for Mars. In fact, times, so the planet moves faster when it is if the same T2/R3 ratio is computed for the nearer the Sun. Thus, a planet executes other planets, it can be found that this elliptical motion with constantly changing ratio is nearly the same value for all the angular speed as it moves about its orbit. planets (see table). Amazingly, every The point of nearest approach of the planet has the same T2/R3 ratio. planet to the Sun is termed perihelion; the point of greatest separation is Average T2 Period termed aphelion. Hence, by Kepler's Planet Distance R3 (yr) second law, the planet moves fastest (the (au) (yr2/au3) orbital velocity increases) when it is near Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98 perihelion and slowest (the orbital velocity decreases) when it is near aphelion. Venus 0.615 0.72 1.01 The Law of Harmonies. The law states that Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00 the square of the orbital period (T2) is Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01 directly proportional to the cube of the distance (R3) of the planet from the sun. In Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99 symbols, Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00 T 2α R3 Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00 If two quantities are proportional, we can Neptune 165 30.06 1.00 insert a proportionality constant, k, which Pluto 248 39.44 1.00 depends on the units adopted for P and a, and get an equation: Using the third law, let us solve the T 2 = k R3 following problems; yr 2 where: k = 1 Mercury is 0.39 au away from the Sun. How a u3 long will it take (in yrs) to complete 1 This law compares the orbital period and revolution around the sun? radius of orbit of a planet to those of other Given: R = 0.39 au planets. This means to say that the ratio of the squares of the periods of any two Required: T in yr planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their average distances from the sun. In symbols, For SLSU use only 31 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES Solution: T 2 = k R3 Now, try to solve these problems; 1. An asteroid is found and its orbital yr 2 ( au ) T = k R3 = 1 3 (0.39a u)3 semi-major axis around the Sun is measured to be 4 A.U. What is the period of its orbit round the Sun? T = 0.24yr 2. An unknown planet has an average Answer: T = 0.24yr distance away from the sun of 3.2 au. (a) Determine the time needed (in Here is another problem; years) to complete one revolution It takes 0.615 year for planet Venus to T2 around the sun. (b) Find the ratio 3. revolve around the sun. (a) Determine the R average distance of Venus away from the T2 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). He was an sun. (b) Determine the value of 3 R Italian physicist Given: T = 0.615 yr and astronomer who was born in T2 Pisa on February Required: (a) R (b) R3 15, 1564 and died Solution: on the 8th of January 1642. T2 (a) from the equation = k, Galileo enrolled R3 to do a medical T2 degree at the R3 = , then University of Pisa k but never nished, instead choosing to study mathematics. 3 T2 (0.615yr)2 R= = Galileo was very close with a beautiful k 3 yr 2 1 woman from Venice named Marina au 3 Gamba; together, they had two daughters R = 0.72a u and a son. And yet, they never married, nor even shared a home. Why not? As T 2 (0.615yr)2 yr 2 Dava Sobel notes, it was traditional for (b) = = 1.0 R3 (0.72a u)3 a u3 scholars in those days to remain single; perceived class difference may also have Answers: played a role. (a) R = 0.72a u He helped open the eyes of the world to a 2 2 T yr new way of thinking about the workings of (b) = 1.0 3 R 3 au our solar system and astronomy in general. Galileo also introduced experimentation into science, laying the foundation of science as we know today. For SLSU use only 32 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES And his detailed study of motion and his method of expressing natural events mathematically opened the way to Newton’s discovery of universal gravitation. When Galileo heard about the invention of the spyglass, a device which made distant objects appear closer, in 1609, he used his knowledge in mathematics and technical skills to improve upon the spyglass and Four moons of Jupiter. https://www.reddit.com/r/space/ comments/jdfp5i/jupiter_and_the_galilean_moons/ build a telescope. Later that same year, he Galileo's rst refracting telescope (1609), which has an aperture of 1.5 cm, and is currently housed at the Museo Galileo in Florence,Italy. https:// www.astronomytrek.com/top-10-in uential-optical- telescopes-in-astronomy/ Phase of Venus. https://faculty.uca.edu/njaustin/ PHYS1401/Laboratory/venus.html became the rst person to look at the Moon through a telescope and make his all other planets revolve around the sun. rst astronomy discovery. He found that the Most people in Galileo's time believed that Moon was not smooth, but mountainous the Earth was the center of the universe and rough - just like the Earth! He and that the Sun and planets revolved subsequently used his newly invented around it. His abrasive and outspoken telescope in observing the skies in ways criticism of Aristotelian philosophy and his previously not achieved. And in1610 he obvious acceptance of the Copernican made observations of four objects worldview, particularly in his dialogue surrounding Jupiter that behaved unlike concerning the Two Chief World Systems, stars, these turned out to be Jupiter’s four led him into serious trouble with the Roman largest satellite moons: Io, Callisto, Europa Catholic Church, which placed him under and Ganymede. They were later renamed house arrest for the last eight years of his the Galilean satellites in honor of Galileo life. himself. Using his telescope, he was also The Catholic Church, which was very able to study Saturn, observe the phases of powerful and in uential in Galileo's day, Venus, and study the sunspots on the Sun. strongly supported the theory of a Galileo's observations strengthened his geocentric, or Earth-centered, universe. belief in Copernicus' theory that Earth and After Galileo began publishing papers For SLSU use only 33 fi fi fi fl fl GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES about his astronomy discoveries and his In 1992, under Pope John Paul II, the belief in a heliocentric, or Sun-centered, Vatican issued an of cial statement Universe, he was called to Rome to answer admitting that it was wrong to have charges brought against him by the persecuted Galileo. But the statement Inquisition (the legal body of the Catholic seemed to place most of the blame on the Church). Early in 1616, Galileo was accused clerks and theological advisers who worked of being a heretic, a person who opposed on Galileo’s case—and not on Pope Urban Church teachings. Heresy was a crime for VIII, who presided over the trial. Nor was which people were sometimes sentenced the charge of heresy overturned. to death. Galileo was cleared of charges of heresy, but was told that he should no longer publicly state his belief that Earth moved around the Sun. Galileo continued his study of astronomy and became more and more convinced that all planets revolved around the Sun. In 1632, he published a book that stated, among other things, that the heliocentric theory of Copernicus was correct. Galileo was once again called before the Inquisition and this time was found guilty of heresy. Galileo Galileo on trial was forced to renounce his beliefs in copernican theory and the motion of the earth. https:// Newspaper article about Pope John Paul II granting designapplause.com/news/galileo-guilty-of-heresy- forgiveness to Galileo in 1992. https://www. ickr.com/ copernican-theory/212007/ photos/objectproject/5562877845 was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1633. Because of his age and poor health, he was allowed to serve his imprisonment under house arrest. Galileo died on January 8, 1642. Galileo, buried between Michelangelo and Machiavelli, is said to have had his gravestone inscribed with the words “But the Earth does move.” It’s not true. For SLSU use only 34 fi fl  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Newton was physical laws that are observed on Earth. born prematurely and barely survived on This meant there must be an unseen force Christmas day 1642, the same year Galileo acting on them. He knew from experiment that, in the absence of an applied force, a moving object will continue in a straight line forever. The planets, on the other hand, were moving in elliptical orbits. Newton asked himself what sort of force would make them do this. In a stroke of genius, he realized that the answer was gravity -- the very same force that causes an apple to fall to the ground on Earth. Newton developed a mathematical formulation of gravity that explained both the motion of a falling apple and that of the planets. Law of Universal Gravitation. The law states that every object in the Universe attracts Photo: Painting by Godfrey Kneller, [Public Domain], via every other object with a force which is Wikimedia Commons. https://www.biography.com/ scientist/isaac-newton directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the died. Newton’s birthplace was his mother’s square of the distance between them. In farm house in Woolsthorpe England. His symbols, father (Isaac Newton) died several months m1m 2 before his birth. When he was 3 years old, Fg α r2 his mother, Hannah Ayscough, remarried a well-to-do minister, Barnabas Smith, and or went to live with him, leaving young Newton with his maternal grandmother. At m1m 2 Fg = G age 12, Newton was reunited with his r2 mother after her second husband died. She brought along her three small children from where: Fg = gravitational force her second marriage. m1 = mass of object 1 m2 = mass of object 2 G = gravitational constant By the 17th century, however, astronomers = 6.7 x 1011 N-m2/kg2 had realized that the Earth itself was a planet and that -- rather than being the xed center of the universe -- it revolves With such a force and the laws of motion, around the sun like any other planet. Newton was able to show mathematically Armed with this new understanding, that the only orbits permitted were exactly Newton developed an explanation of those described by Kepler’s laws. The planetary motion using the same physical attractive force between all masses, is what laws that apply on Earth. Newton was keeps the planets in orbit. In other words, convinced the planets must obey the same the Earth (and other planets) orbits the Sun because the Sun attracts the Earth with For SLSU use only 35 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES a large gravitational force, but the Earth (centripetal force) pulls them toward it. The moves so quickly on a perpendicular path force of gravity causes the moving planets to the Sun that it "escapes" from falling into to travel in elliptical orbits around the sun. the Sun. However, the Earth does not move They have been circling the sun for billions of years because other forces have been fast enough to escape the Sun's pull too weak to change the orbits in any completely, so it orbits at a distance relative signi cant way. to the magnitude of the gravitational force and velocity it moves at. Kepler’s laws and Newton’s laws taken together imply that the force that holds the planets in their orbits by continuously changing the planet’s velocity so that it follows an elliptical path is directed toward the Sun from the planet, and it is proportional to the product of masses for the Sun and planet, and it is inversely proportional to the square of the planet- Sun separation or distance. The Sun's inward pull of gravity on a planet competes Laws of Motion. These are set of three laws with the planet's tendency to continue moving in a that describe the motion of an object and straight line. These two effects combine, causing the its relationship with the force that is acting planet to move smoothly along an intermediate path, on it. These three laws of motion were which continuously "falls around" the Sun. This unending tug-of-war between the Sun's gravity and the planet's introduced by Isaac Newton in 1687. He inertia results in a stable orbit. (Fig. 1.24, Chaisson & used these laws for the explanation and McMillan, Copyright Prentice Hall, 2004). https:// investigation of the motion of many web.njit.edu/~gary/202/Lecture4.html physical objects and systems including the pantry motion. Law of Acceleration. States that the acceleration (caused by the net force) of an Law of Inertia. States that an object at rest object is directly proportional to the net remains at rest and an object in motion force and inversely proportional to the continues to move at a constant velocity mass of an object. In symbols, unless it is acted upon by an external force. ΣF aα Any moving object in space has a tendency m to travel in a straight line at the same speed forever, planets included. The planets or would be moving in straight lines due to the centrifugal force acting upon them ΣF a= and ΣF = m a which tends to pull them outside their m orbit, but the sun’s gravitational force For SLSU use only 36 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES In planetary motion, the net force that will the sun’s motion, although it affects the cause the planet to accelerate while planet in a major way. revolving in an elliptical orbit is the gravitational force exerted by the Sun. Both the acceleration and the net force are directed towards the Sun-one of the foci of the ellipse. This net force continually alters a planet’s path, bending it towards the sun although never directly at it. Furthermore, the net force can cause the planet to either speed up or slow down in addition to Industrial Revolution changing directions. Eventually, the motion The Industrial Revolution which began in the of the planet in elliptical orbit is late 1700s and continued to the 1800s, characterized by changing velocity. changed the world. It represents the time when home production of goods began to be transferred to factories powered by steam and electricity, fueled by coal and oil producing things in mass quantities and transporting goods faster over long distances through the cleverness of men and women. Their creativity, expanding of their minds, the Industrial Elliptical Orbit of a Planet. Even moving in elliptical Revolution showed that they could take the motion, there is a tangential velocity and an inward resources that this earth had to offer and acceleration and force. In this case, both the acceleration provide for the necessities of people around and force are directed towards the central body. https:// the world. The birthplace of this revolution took www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-4/ Circular-Motion-Principles-for-Satellites place in Great Britain where there were many more resources such as iron ore and coal Law of Interaction. The law states that when needed to power the machines inside the the rst object exerts a force on a second factories and industrial plants. object, the second will exert the same force on the rst but in the opposite direction. In Great Britain was sending and selling many of their products to the people of the United other words, for every action there is an States. However, this came to a halt due mostly equal but opposite reaction. For example, a to the Embargo Act of 1807, which ended the cat sitting on a chair exerts a downward export and import of products from other force on the chair from her weight; the countries. In addition, the war of 1812 when the chair also exerts a force on the cat, holding U.S. went to war against Great Britain forced her up. In the same manner, the force America to seek ways to become more exerted on a planet by the sun is also “felt” independent and not rely on other countries for by the sun; however, because the sun is products that they needed. The Embargo Act hundreds of times more massive than the and the war led to the expansion of planets, the force has barely any effect on transportation. The ef cient and additional For SLSU use only 37 fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES electricity and industrial processes that The Industrial Revolution inspired many increase the production of goods in other great inventions during the rest of the America. The Industrial Revolution brought 19th century including telephone by many important events and inventions. The Alexander Graham Bell in 1877, light bulb timeline of some inventions during this by Thomas Edison in 1878 and the rst period are listed below; gasoline-powered automobile by Karl Benz in 1885. The Industrial Revolution made Year Inventions Inventor real the dreams of what was and is possible. Today everything we enjoyed and Steamboat where need, came to the great developers and the engine was Robert 1793 inventors of the Industrial Revolution. obtained from and Fulton Automobiles, airplanes, cellphones and built by James Watt. even air conditioning and things to help us Cotton gin live healthy long lives, better foods, increased the speed medical advances, ways to ght disease, all Eli 1794 of separating the Whitney of these developments we enjoy today is cotton seeds from because of struggles and challenges of the the ber. great men and women of the Industrial Reaper allowing Revolution. Cyrus 1831 harvesting of grain to McCormick be faster and cheaper. In conclusion, the Scienti c Revolution in Steel plow used in the Modern Ages revealed new discoveries faster and more John and ideas from the giants of scienti c world 1837 ef cient planting and Deere that changed the beliefs of the society; it growing of crops. marked a major shift on how people Sewing machine used thought about the natural world. On the Elias 1846 for fast production of Howe other hand, the Industrial Revolution clothing. brought scienti c innovations and Velocipede is the rst technological improvements that commercially contribute to the advancement in successful two- Karl Von 1860 agriculture, industry, shipping and trading wheeled steerable Drais human powered and to the expansion of economy. device. Telegraph allowed -END OF THE LESSON- communication by wire using electricity and sending pulses of Samuel 1869 dots and dashes to Morse communicate from East coast to the Mississippi. For SLSU use only 38 fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES For SLSU use only 39 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES For SLSU use only 40 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES For SLSU use only 41 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES For SLSU use only 42 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES For SLSU use only 43 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES For SLSU use only 44 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES For SLSU use only 45 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES For SLSU use only 46