Membrane Structure and Function PDF

Membrane Structure  The plasma membrane separates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings.  This thin barrier, 8 nm thick, controls traffic into and out of the cell.  Like other membranes, the plasma membrane is selectively permeable, allowing some substances to cross more easily than oth...

Membrane Structure  The plasma membrane separates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings.  This thin barrier, 8 nm thick, controls traffic into and out of the cell.  Like other membranes, the plasma membrane is selectively permeable, allowing some substances to cross more easily than others.  The most abundant lipids cell membrane are phospholipids.  Phospholipids and most other membrane constituents are amphipathic molecules.  Amphipathic molecules have both hydrophobic regions and hydrophilic regions.  The phospholipids and proteins in membranes create a unique physical environment, described by the fluid mosaic model.  A membrane is a fluid structure with proteins embedded or attached to a double layer of phospholipids. Biological membranes allow life as we know it to exist. They form cells and enable separation between the inside and outside of an organism, controlling by means of their selective permeability which substances enter and leave. By allowing gradients of ions to be created across them, membranes also enable living organisms to generate energy. In addition, they control the flow of messages between cells by sending, receiving and processing information in the form of chemical and electrical signals. The plasma membrane, or the cell membrane, provides protection for a cell. It also provides a fixed environment inside the cell, and that membrane has several different functions. One is to transport nutrients into the cell and also to transport toxic substances out of the cell. Three types of lipid are found in biological membranes, namely phospholipids, glycolipids and sterols. Phospholipids consist of two fatty acid chains linked to glycerol and a phosphate group. Phospholipids containing glycerol are referred to as glycerophospholipids. An example of a glycerophospholipid that is commonly found in biological membranes is phosphatidylcholine (PC), which has a choline molecule attached to the phosphate group. Serine and ethanolamine can replace the choline in this position, and these lipids are called phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), respectively. Phospholipids can also be sphingophospholipids (based on sphingosine), such as sphingomyelin. oGlycolipids can contain either glycerol or sphingosine, and always have a sugar I such as glucose in place of the phosphate head found in phospholipids. Sterols are absent from most bacterial membranes, but are an important component of animal (typically cholesterol) and plant (mainly stigmasterol) membranes. Cholesterol has a quite different structure to that of the phospholipids and glycolipids. It consists of a hydroxyl group (which is the hydrophilic ‘head’ region), a four-ring steroid structure and a short hydrocarbon side chain . on Membrane Phosphatidylcholine Glycero phospholipid lipid types Glysolipid Sterol The sugars attached to lipids and proteins can act as markers due to the structural diversity of sugar chains. For example, antigens composed of sugar chains on the surface of red blood cells determine an individual's blood group. These antigens are recognized by antibodies to cause an immune response, which is why matching blood groups must be used in blood transfusions. Other carbohydrate markers are present in disease (e.g. specific carbohydrates on the surface of cancer cells), and can be used by doctors and researchers to diagnose and treat various conditions. Amphipathic lipids form bilayers All membrane lipids are amphipathic—that is, they contain both a hydrophilic (water-loving) region and a hydrophobic (water-hating) region. Thus the most favorable environment for the hydrophilic head is an aqueous one, whereas the hydrophobic tail is more stable in a lipid environment. The amphipathic nature of membrane lipids means that they naturally form bilayers in which the hydrophilic heads point outward towards the aqueous environment and the hydrophobic tails point inward towards each other (Figure 2a). When placed in water, membrane lipids will spontaneously form liposomes, which are spheres formed of a bilayer with water inside and outside, resembling a tiny cell (Figure 2b). This is the most favourable configuration for these lipids, as it means that all of the hydrophilic heads are in contact with water and all of the hydrophobic tails are in a lipid environment From É Q é É A  The molecules in the bilayer are arranged as hydrophobic fatty acid tails are sheltered from water while the hydrophilic phosphate groups interact with water.  Membrane proteins are amphipathic, with hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. Fig. 8.1b  If at the surface, the hydrophilic regions would be in contact with water.  In this fluid mosaic model, the hydrophilic a regions of proteins and phospholipids are in contact with water and the hydrophobic regions are in a nonaqueous environment. Membranes are mosaics of structure and function • A membrane is a collage of different proteins embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer. To work properly with permeability, membrane must be fluid about as fluid as oil. A)- The plasma membrane has a unique collection of proteins. • There are two populations of MEMBRANE PROTEINS. 1. Peripheral proteins are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all. Instead, they are loosely bounded to the surface of the protein, often connected to the other population of membrane proteins. 2. Integral proteins penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer, often completely spanning the membrane (a transmembrane protein). Where they contact the core, they have hydrophobic regions with nonpolar amino acids, often coiled into alpha helices. Where they are in contact with the aqueous environment, they have hydrophilic regions of polar amino acids. Integral proteins Hydrophilic region Peripheral proteins Hydrophobic region The proteins in the plasma membrane may provide a variety of major cell functions. Aquaporins (channel proteins): are transport proteins that function by having a hydrophilic channel that facilitate the passage of water molecules through the membrane in certain cells. Without aquaporins, only a tiny fraction of water molecules would pass through the cell membrane. Carrier protein (glucose transporter): in the plasma membrane of red blood cells transports glucose across the membrane 50,000 time faster than glucose can pass through on its own. Nonpolar molecules, such as hydrocarbons, CO2, and O2, are hydrophobic and can therefore dissolve in the lipid and without the aid of bilayer of the membrane and cross it easily, membrane proteins. Thus, the selective permeability of a membrane depends on both the discriminating barrier of the lipid bilayer and the specific transport proteins built into the membrane Specific proteins facilitate passive transport • Many polar molecules and ions diffuse passively through the lipid bilayer with the help of transport proteins (gated channels ‫)قنوات ُم َبوبة‬. • The passive movement of molecules down its concentration gradient via a transport protein is called facilitated diffusion. • Many transport proteins simply provide channels allowing a specific molecule or ion to cross the membrane. Functions of cell membrane (Plasma membrane) 1- Selective permeability  A steady traffic of small molecules and ions moves across the plasma membrane in both directions.  For example, sugars, amino acids, and other nutrients enter a muscle cell and metabolic waste products leave it.  The cell absorbs O2 and expels CO2.  It also regulates concentrations of inorganic ions, like Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl-, by passing them across the membrane.  However, substances do not move across the barrier indiscriminately ‫ عشوائيا‬as membrane is selectively permeable.  Hydrophobic molecules, like hydrocarbons, CO2, and O2, can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and cross easily as described in the previous slide.  Ions and polar molecules like H2O and glucose pass through channel proteins as described in the previous slide.  Thus membrane proteins assist and regulate the transport of ions and polar molecules. Selective Permeability CO2 CO2 Nucleus O2 O2 The cell is able to take up particular molecules and exclude others 2- Passive transport Involves the movement of molecules across the cell membrane without an input of energy by the cell. No ENERGY is required to move substances across membrane (water, lipids, and other lipid soluble substances). Rather, the CONCENTRATION GRADIENT represents potential energy and drives diffusion Types of Passive transport: A. Diffusion B. Osmosis C. Facilitated Diffusion A)- Diffusion: Is the tendency of molecules of any substance to spread out in the available space randomly. • For example, a permeable membrane separating a solution with sugar molecules from pure water, sugar molecules will cross the barrier randomly. • The sugar molecules will cross the membrane until both solutions have equal concentrations of the sugar (dynamic equilibrium). Lump of sugar dynamic equilibrium • A substance will diffuse from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated, down its concentration gradient. B). Osmosis : the passive transport of water • Differences in concentration of dissolved materials in two solutions can lead to the movement of ions from one to the other through a selectively permeable membrane. • If the membrane is impermeable to the solute molecules, then the water molecules will move across this membrane against the concentration gradient. • The solution with the higher concentration of solutes is hypertonic. • The solution with the lower concentration of solutes is hypotonic. • Solutions with equal solute concentrations are isotonic. Osmosis: Is a passive transport in which water diffuses across a selectively permeable membrane from the hypotonic solution to the hypertonic solution until the solutions become isotonic. Principal of water movement Osmosis Isotonic Osmosis Selectively permeable membrane Low conc. of sugar hypotonic High conc. of sugar hypertonic Types of solutions and Osmosis • Hypertonic solution: contains high concentration of solute ‫مُذاب‬ molecules. • Hypotonic solution: contains low concentration of solute molecules. • Isotonic solution: contains equal concentrations of solute molecules Biological Membrane H2O Hypertonic Hypotonic Osmoregulation LLNL • The cell in a hypertonic environment will loose water, shrivel, and die. • A cell in a hypotonic solution will gain water, swell, and burst. • Organisms without rigid walls have osmotic problems in either a hypertonic or hypotonic environment and must have adaptations for osmoregulation to maintain their internal environment. • Example, Paramecium have a specialized organelle (the contractile vacuole), that functions as a pump to force water out of the cell. Behavior of water when a living cell is placed in Hypertonic, Hypotonic or Isotonic Solutions C)- Facilitated Diffusion: Specific proteins facilitate passive transport • It is the passive movement of molecules down its concentration gradient via a transport protein. I • It Helps diffusion of molecules across a membrane when they are not soluble in lipids or are too large (e.g. glucose) to pass through pores in membrane • Thus, a molecule binds to a carrier protein on one side of the cell membrane. • The carrier protein (specific for one type of molecule) then changes its shape and transports the molecule down its concentration gradient to the other side of the membrane. • Other transport proteins translocate the molecules across the membrane as the protein changes its shape . Active transport is the pumping of solutes against their concentration gradients • Some facilitated transport proteins can move solutes against their concentration gradient, from the side where they are less concentrated to the side where they are more concentrated. • This active transport requires metabolic energy via ATP. • Active transport is critical for a cell to maintain its internal concentrations of small molecules. • Active transport is performed by specific proteins embedded in the membranes called transport protein (T. protein). 24 1)- Transport of small molecules (Ions ) • The sodium-potassium pump actively maintains the gradient of sodium (Na+) and potassium ions (K+) across the membrane. – The animal cell has higher concentrations of K+ and lower concentrations of Na+ inside the cell. – The sodium-potassium pump (T. protein) uses the energy of one ATP to pump 3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions in. 1ATP 00 0 Outside the cell Na Na Na Na To T. protein Low conc. + 2 of K High conc. + of Na High conc. + of K Low conc. 3 of Na+ Protein molecule ATP Cellular membrane Inside the cell 26 Two roles of membrane protein Both diffusion and facilitated diffusion are forms of passive transport of molecules down their concentration gradient, while active transport requires an investment of energy to move molecules against their concentration gradient. 2)- Transport of large molecules (macromolecules) Large molecules are transported by Exocytosis and endocytosis • Like active transport, these processes require energy.  Small molecules and water enter or leave the cell through the lipid bilayer or by transport proteins.  Large molecules, such as polysaccharides, proteins and lipoprotein particles cross the membrane by vesicles. 1. • • Exocytosis : A transport vesicle budded from the Golgi apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane. When the two membranes come in contact , the bilayers fuse and spill ‫ يُفرع‬the contents to the outside. 2- Endocytosis : A cell brings in macromolecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane and include the following: A)- Phagocytosis : • Called “cellular eating”. The cell engulfs a particle by extending pseudopodia around it and packaging it in a large vacuole. • The contents of the vacuole are digested when the vacuole fuses with a lysosome. 29 B)- Pinocytosis, “cellular drinking”.♥ A cell creates a vesicle around droplets of extracellular fluid. – This is a non-specific process. C)- Receptor-mediated endocytosis: It Is called (Selective eating) which is very specific in what substances are being transported. • It is triggered when extracellular substances bind to special receptors, on the membrane surface. This triggers the formation of a vesicle It enables a cell to take large quantities of specific materials that may be in low concentrations in the environment. Transport Passive Diffusion Membrane phospholipids Active Membrane transport protein + Energy Bulk Exocytosis Facilitated Diffusion transport protein http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter3/animation__how_diffusion_works.html (membrane & require energy) Endocytosis Phagocytosis (cellular eating) Pinocytosis ( cellular drinking) http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/biology1111/animat ions/passive1.swf Receptor-mediated endocytosis (selective eating)