Physiology and Homeostasis PDF

PHYSIOLOGY AND HOMEOSTASIS Prof. Dr. Neyhan Ergene Physiology is the study of how living organisms function. it is concerned with complex processes that depend on the integrated functions of many organs in the body—for example, how the heart, kidneys, and several glands all function...

PHYSIOLOGY AND HOMEOSTASIS Prof. Dr. Neyhan Ergene Physiology is the study of how living organisms function. it is concerned with complex processes that depend on the integrated functions of many organs in the body—for example, how the heart, kidneys, and several glands all function together to cause the excretion of more sodium ions in the urine when a person has eaten salty food. Physiologists are interested in function and integration—how parts of the body work together at various levels of organization and, most importantly, in the entire organism. Subgroups of Physiological Science: 1- According to the examined organism; Like humans, animals, plants. 2- According to the level of organization worked; Molecular, such as cellular. 3- According to a specific or systemic function studied; Neurophysiology, respiratory physiology, cardiovascular physiology, etc… Physiology Life Logic Study  ATOMS  Molecules  Organels  Cell  Tissue  Organ  System  ORGANISM Ecosystem—Biological Environment Organism from atoms to systems Sistemler organizmanın fizyolojik olarak bütünlüğünü sağlar.. Physiology Referance Books in Turkish: Tıbbi Fizyoloji (Guyton&Hall, Çeviri; Grup) Tıbbi Fizyoloji (Ganong, Çeviri; Grup) Fizyoloji (Berne, Levy, Koeppen, Stanton, Çeviri; Grup) Wander İnsan Fizyolojisi, Vücut Fonksiyon Mekanizmaları (E.P. Widmaier, H, Raff, K.T. Strang, Çeviri: Tuncay Özgünen) Tıbbi Fizyoloji, Klinik Tıbbın Temelleri, Rodney A. Rhoades, David R. Bell, (Çeviri; Grup) Tıbbi Fizyoloji, Klinik Anlatımlı, Halis Köylü. Renkli Fizyoloji Atlası (A. Despopoulos S. Silbernagl) İnsan Fizyolojisi, Türk Fizyolojik Bilimler Derneği Yayını Ed. Erdal Ağar.  Physiology Referance Books in English: Guyton’s Medical Physiology, (Hall and Hall), Elsevier. Medical Physiology (Walter F. Boron &Emile L. Boulbaep), Elsevier Saunders. Human Physiology (Stuart Ira Fox), McGraw Hill Education. Medical Physiology, A Systems Approach (Hershel Raff & Michael Levitzky), McGraw Hill. Human Physiology, From Cells to Systems (Lauralee Sherwood) Human Physiology, An Integrated Approach (Dee Unglaub Silverthorn), Pearson. Human Physiology (Rodney A. Rhoades & Richard G. Pflanzer) Principles of Human Physiology (Cindy L. Stanfield), Pearson. Vander’s Human Physiology. The Mechanisms of Body Function. (E.P.Widmaier, H.Raff, K.T.Strang). McGraw Hill Education. Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, (K.E.Barrett, S.M.Barman, H.L.Brooks, J.Yuan). McGraw Hill. Human Physiology, (B.Derrickson). Wiley Books. Berne and Levy Physiology, (B.M.Koeppen, B.A.Stanton) Mosby Elsevier. The human body is made up of large numbers of single cells that come together to form tissues and organ systems. These cells and systems depend on the many daily processes that occur in our body to keep us alive. We often take these life-sustaining activities for granted and don't really think about what drives us. Physiology is closely related to anatomy, which is the study of the structure of the body. Physiological mechanisms are made possible by the structural design and relationships of the various body parts that perform each of these functions. BİRİMLER: INTERNATIONAL UNITS Uzunluk - Length Metre-m Kütle - Mass Kilogram-kg Hacim - Volume Litre-Liter L Zaman -Time Dakika, Saniye-s Elektrik akım şiddeti, -electrical current, Amper-A potansiyel fark, -potential differance voltage mV Isı, sıcaklık - Heat Kelvin-K, Co ,F Madde Miktarı, -substance amount Mol-mol Güç, -power Newton-N Basınç,(Bir bölgeye tatbik edilen güç) Pressure, (power applied to certain field) - mmHg - Pascal-Pa - Atm - Torr - din/cm2 dyne/cm2 yotta Y 1024 zetta Z 1021 exa E 1018 peta P 1015 deci d 10-1 tera T 1012 centi c 10-2 giga G 109 mili m 10-3 mega M 106 micro  10-6 kilo k 103 nano n 10-9 hecto h 102 pico p 10-12 deca da 101 femto f 10-15 atto a 10-18 zepto z 10-21 yokto y 10-24 Hippocrates (B.C. 460-337) Hippocrates, who is considered the founder of medicine, stated that diseases are caused by bad air, water, stars, wind and the effects of the seasons and he named 4 elements (fire, water, earth, air), 4 qualities (hot, cold, moisture, dry) and 4 elements of the body. He gave information about the fluid (blood, common bile, black bile, yellow bile) and stated that diseases occur as a result of the deterioration of the balance in them. Galenius ( A.D.130-201) He did research on pigs and monkeys and tried to give information by comparing them with the functions in the human body. Avicenna (980-1037) Famous Turkish scholar Avicenna (Ibn-i Sina) mentioned the existence of microorganisms by saying, "It is a worm that causes every disease, unfortunately there is no instrument that can see them". His work called Medicine's Law has been used as a basic medicine book for centuries. okutulmuştur. El-Biruni (973-1048) As a versatile researcher, El-Biruni also made important studies on medicine. Beyhekim Ekmeleddin Tabip He is originally from Nakhchivan. His real name is EKMELÜDDİN MÜETTED EL-NAHCUVANI. He is referred to as the "Sultan of Doctors" and "Malik of Doctors". He is one of the most valuable physicians who grew up in the Seljuk period. He worked as Chief Physician at Gevher Nesibe Hospital in Kayseri. He was responsible for issuing certificates to graduate students that they could practice medicine in the Seljuk lands. The year of birth and death are unknown. He is Hz. Mevlana with his disciple and doctorate. He worked as a physician to Sultan Veled, son of Mevlana. liche Müzesinde sergilenmektedir. Akşemsettin (Şam-1389-Bolu, Göynük-1459) The teacher of Fatih Sultan Mehmet Khan, Akşemsettin Maddetül-hayat in his work, "It is wrong to think that diseases occur one by one in people, the disease is transmitted from person to person. This contamination is too small to be seen with the naked eye, but it happens through live seeds” and made a kind of definition of microorganisms. However, when Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) discovered the microscope in 1675, microorganisms could be seen. Sabuncuoğlu Şerefeddin He is one of the important physicians of the Sultan Mehmet the Conquerer (Fatih) period. He was born in Amasya in 1386 and died in 1470 (1468?). He wrote three important works on surgery. His most important work is "Kitab-ı Sahne-i Al Haniye". He explained his subjects with miniatures. He dedicated this book to Sultan Mehmet. He brought a great innovation to Islamic medicine. After working as a physician for many years, he wrote his work "Mücerrabname" in 1468 at the age of 82. He conducted experiments on animals and even did some of his experiments on himself. After drinking his antidote, he got himself bitten by a snake. In his own words, "Neither his finger was swollen nor any symptoms were observed in his body." Andreas Vesallius (1514-1564) Dutch researcher He is the researcher who gives the first direct information about the human body. William Harvey (1578-1657) English researcher He is the first researcher who fully explained blood circulation and is considered the founder of physiology. Francois Magendie (1783-1855) French Researcher He reported that the functions of organs could only be explained experimentally, and he completed the findings of Charles Bell (1774-1842) by making studies determining the functions of the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal cord, and the rule known as the Bell-Magendie law emerged. Francois Achille Longet (1811-1871) French Researcher His book "Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in Humans and All Vertebrates" (1843) gathered all the information and this book can be considered as the first physiology book. Johannes Müller (1801-1858- German researcher) ; He has made important studies on the stimulation of the nervous system and sensory organs in particular. Weber brothers; They applied the laws of physics and mathematics to physiology. Ernest H. Weber (1795-1878); On sense perceptions has done studies. Jan Evangeliste Purkinje (1787-1869) Czech researcher. He was the first to find Purkinje cells in the cerebellum, the fibers that transmit impulses in the heart. He is known for his work on the eye, sweat glands, histology and embryology, gastric epithelium and glands. He was the first to use the microtome. He used many plants such as camphor, opium, belladonna, and turpentine in the treatment. He was the first to use the terms plasma and protoplasm. He founded the first Physiology department. Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) invented the recording method of muscle contractions and measured conduction velocity in frog motor nerves, he also made the first ophthalmoscope and proposed theories about hearing. The first scientific journal of physiology was the "Journal of Physiology", published in England in 1869. Claude Bernard (1813-1878) French researcher. The researcher who made the first physiological studies in the experimental sense and is considered the founder of experimental physiology. Among his discoveries, the most important is the liver's glycogenic is the function. He also has various studies on the muscle and nervous systems, on the functions of the pancreas and more. FOUNDATION OF PHYSIOLOGY IN TÜRKİYE Sultan Mahmud II established the opening of the first modern Military Medical School on March 14, 1827. This school became the Mekteb-i Tıbbiyei Şahane in 1838. Physiology courses are also taught in the second class of this school. Many scholars were sent to France education Şakir Selim Pasha and he worked with Claude Bernard. Prof. Dr. Kemal Cenap Berksoy (1876-1949) was a student of Dr. Şakir Pasha. Dr.Şakir Selim Prof.Dr. Kemal Cenap Berksoy (Şakir Paşa) 1876-1949 1819-1909  Ord.Prof.Dr. H Ord.Prof.Dr. Winterstein Sadi Irmak 1878-1963 1904-1990 In 1933, Prof. Dr. Hans Winterstein came to Turkey and worked at Istanbul University until 1953. His most important student and assistant, Prof. Dr. Sadi Irmak. NOBEL ÖDÜLLERİ Alfred Nobel had an active interest in medical research. Through Karolinska Institutet he came into contact with Swedish physiologist Jöns Johansson around 1890. Johansson worked in Nobel’s laboratory in Sevran, France for a time that year. Physiology or medicine was the third prize area Nobel mentioned in his will. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded by the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden In 1901, Emil von Behring was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on serum therapy, particularly for its use in the treatment of diphtheria. for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths"  NOBEL TIP FİZYOLOJİ ÖDÜLLERİ 1904 PAVLOVVVVIVAN PAVLOV-RUS SİNDİRİM SİST. FONK. 1904 PAVLOV CONDITIONED REFLEXES 1905 ROBERT KOCH WORK ON TUBERCULOSIS 1906 CAMİLLO GOLGI - İTALYAN NEURON, BASIC UNIT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM SANTINGO ROMAY CAJAL 1908 ILYA ILYICHMECHİNOV IMMUNOLOGICAL STUDIES PAUL ERLICH 1909 EMIL KOCHER - İSVİÇRE THYROID GLAND FUNCTIONS 1910 ALBRECHT KOSSEL PROTEIN CONTAINS NUCLEIC ACID 1911 ALLVAR GULLSTRAND - İSVEÇ GÖZDE KIRILMA 1914 ROBERT BARANY - AVUSTURYA KULAK, VEST. ORGAN 1920 AUGUST KROGH - DANİMARKA CAPILLARY MOTOR REGULATION 1922 ARCHIBALD HILL - İNGİLİZ HEAT FORMATION IN MUSCLES OTTO MEYERHOF - ALMAN LACTIC A. MET. IN MUSCLES 1923 F.G. BANTING – KANADA DISCOVERY OF INSULIN J.J.R. MACLEOD - İNGİLİZ 1924 WİLLİAM EINTHOVEN - HOLLANDA ECG 1929 CHRISTIAN EIJHMAN – HOLLANDA B1 VİT & F. HOPKİNS – İNGİLİZ VITAMINES 1930 KARL LANDSTEINER - ABD BLOOD GROUPS 1931 OTTO WARBURG - ALMAN RES. SYSTEM ENZYMES 1932 EDGAR D. ADRIAN - İNGİLİZ NEURON FUNCTIONS SIR C. SHERRINGTON - İNGİLİZ 1933 THOMAS HUNT MORGEN - ABD CHROMOSOMES 1936 H.H.DALE-İNGİLİZ NEUROTRANSMITTERS, OTTO LOEWI – ALMAN (ACh) 1937 ALBERT SZENT GYÖRGYI - MACAR CELL MET. 1938 CORNEILLE HEYMANS - BELÇİKA ARTERIAL RECEPTORS. (RESPIRATORY SYSTEM CONTROL ) 1943 HENRİK DAM - DANİMARKA VITAMINE K EDWARD A. DAISY - ABD 1944 JOSEPH ERLANGER - ABD FUNC. OF NEURONS HERBERT S.GASSER - ABD 1945 SIR ALEXANDER FLEMING PENİCİLLİN 1947 CARL FERDİNAND CORİ CATHALITIC TURNOVER OF GLYCOGEN GERTHY THERESA NEE RODRİTZ CORİ 1948 BERNATO ALBERTO HOUSSAV ROLE OF ADENOHYPOPHYSIS HORMONES IN SUGAR METABOLİSM 1949 WALTER RUDOLPH HESS - İSVİÇRE MIDBRAIN FUNC.. 1950 PHILIP S.HANCH - ABD ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES EDWARD C. KENDALL - ABD 1953 HANS ADOLF KREBS - CYTRIC ACİD CYCLE AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN FRİTZ ALBERT LİPMANN COENZİM A METABOLISM 1955 AXEL HUGO THEODOR THEROLL OXIDATIONAL ENZYMES STRUCTURE AND EFFECTING MECHANISMS 1959 SEVERO OCHOA - BIOLOGICAL SYNTHESİS OF RNA AND DNA ARTHUR KOMBERG 1961 GEORGE VON BERESY- ABD INTERNAL EAR COCHLEA FUNC. 1962 FRANCIS H. CRICK - İNGİLİZ MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF DNA JAMES D. WATSON - ABD MAURICE WILKINS - İNGİLİZ 1963 JOHN ECCLES - AVUSTRALYA NEURAL STIMULUS ALAN L. HOOGKIN – İNGİLİZ ION MECHANİSM ON MEMBRANE ANDREW HUXLEY - İNGİLİZ 1964 KONTRAD BLOCH, FATTY ACİDS AND CHOLESTEROL FEODOR EBMAN MET. REGULATION 1967 HALDAN K. HARDLINE - ABD CHEMİCAL CHANGES IN VISION GEORGE WALD - ABD RAGNAR A. GRANIT - ABD 1970 JUINS AXELROD - ABD NEURAL TRANSMITTINGS BERNARD KATZ - İNGİLİZ HUMORAL NEUROTRANSMITTERS ULF VON EULER - İSVEÇ 1971 EARL W. SUTHERLAND - ABD SECOND MESSENGER SYSTEM IN HORMONS 1972 GERALD M. EDELMAN - CHEMİCAL STRUCTURE OF ANTİBODIES RODNEY R. PORTER 1974 ALBERT CLAUDE - ABD CELLULAR FUNCTIONS GEORGE E. PALADE - ABD CHRISTIAN R. DE DURNE - BELÇİKA 1977 ROGER GUİLLOMİNİN - PEPTİD HORMONES IN BRAIN ANDREW V. SCHALLY ROSALYN YALOW RADIOIMMUNOASSAYS 1979 A.M.CORMACK COMPUTERISED TOMOGRAPY G.N.HOUNSFIELD 1980 BARUJ BENACERRAF - GENETİK STRUCTURES ON CELLS JEAN DAUSSET - GEORGE D. SNALL 1981 ROGER W. SPERRY - ABD FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN HEMISPHERS. TORSTEN N. WIESEL - İSVEÇ GÖRSEL BİLGİNİN İŞLENMESİ DAVİD H. HUBEL - ABD 1982 SUNE K.BERGTRÖM - İSVEÇ PROSTOGLANDINS BENGT I. SANELLSON JOHN R. VANE 1985 MICHEAL BROWN - ABD LDL RECEPTORS JOSEPH GOLDSTEIN - ABD CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM  Stanley Cohen Rita Levi-Montalcini The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986 was awarded jointly to Stanley Cohen and Rita Levi- Montalcini "for their discoveries of growth factors"  Erwin Neher Bert Sakmann The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1991 was awarded jointly to Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann "for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells“ 1992 EDMOND H. FISCHER - BİYOLOİK DÜZENLEYİCİ EDWIN G. KREBS SİSTEM OLARAK PROTEİN FOSFORİLASYONU 1993 RICHARD ROBERTS -ABD GENETİCAL ORDERS IN DNA PHILIP SHARP – ABD 1994 ALFERT G. GILMAN - DISCOVERY OF G PROTEINS MARTIN RODBEL 1995 For Their Discoveries Concerning The Genetic Control Of Early Embryonic Development Eric F. Wischaus Edward B. Lewis (ABD) (ABD) Christiane Nüsslein- Volhard (Almanya) 1996 For Their Discoveries Concerning The Specificity Of The Cell Mediated Immune Defence Peter C. Doherty Rolf M. Zinkernagel (Avustralya) (İsviçre)  For His Discovery of Prions - A New Biological Principle of Infection Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and related illnesses affecting people and animals involve the degeneration of brain cells. In 1982 Stanley Prusiner was able to isolate a suspected infectious agent, a protein that he called a prion. He identified the gene behind the prion protein, but determined that it is also present in healthy people and animals. Stanley Prusiner Stanley B. Prusiner showed that the prion molecules are folded in a (ABD) different way than the normal proteins and that the folding of the prion can be transferred to normal proteins. This is the basis for the illness. 1997 1998 ROBERT F. FURCHGOTT - DISCOVERY OF NITRIC OXID LUİSS J. IGNARRO - FERİD MURAD 1999 GÜNTER BLOBEL DISCOVERY OF INTRINSIK PROTEINS 2000 ERİC R. KANDEL - SIGNAL TRANFORMATION IN NERVOUS SYSTEM ARVİD CARLSSON - PAUL GREENGARD 2 LELAND H. HARTWELL HÜCRE SİKLUSUNDAKİ 0 R. TİMOTHY (TİM) HUNT ANAHTAR 0 SİR PAUL M. NURSE DÜZENLEYİCİLERİN KEŞFİ 1 2 SYDNEY BRENNER ORGAN GELİŞİMİ VE 0 H. ROBERT HORVİTZ PROGRAMLANMIŞ HÜCRE 0 JOHN E. SULSTON ÖLÜMÜNÜN GENETİK 2 DÜZENLENMESİ 2 PAUL C. LAUTERBUR MANYETİK REZONANS 0 SİR PETER MANSFİELD GÖRÜNTÜLEMENİN KEŞFİ 0 3 2 RİCHARD AXEL KOKU RESEPTÖRLERİNİN 0 LİNDA B. BUCK KEŞFİ VE KOKLAMA 0 DUYUSUNUN 4 ORGANİZASYONU 2005 BARRY J. MARSHALL HELİCOBACTER PYLORİ’NİN J. ROBİN WARREN KEŞFİ VE GASTRİT VE PEPTİK ÜLSER HASTALIKLARINDAKİ ROLÜ 2006 ANDREW Z. FIRE RNA MÜDAHELESİ İE CRAIG C. MELLO GENETİK BİLGİ AKIŞININ DENETLENMESİ  The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009 Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider, Jack W. Szostak "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase  The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2010 Robert G. Edwards The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2010 was awarded to Robert G. Edwards "for the development of in vitro fertilization". The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2011 Bruce A. Beutler, Jules A. Hoffmann, Ralph M. Steinman Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2011 was divided, one half jointly to Bruce A. Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann "for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity" and the other half to Ralph M. Steinman "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity". Bruce A. Beutler Born: 1957, Chicago, IL, USA Prize motivation: "for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity Jules A. Hoffmann Born: 1941, Echternach, Luxembourg Prize motivation: "for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity” Ralph M. Steinman Born: 1943, Montreal, Canada Died: 30 September 2011 Prize motivation: "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity» (He died 3 days before the Nobel prize declared) The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 Sir John B. Gurdon (UK), Shinya Yamanaka (JAPAN) Prize motivation: "for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent" The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2013 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2015  For Mechanistic Studies of DNA Repair (2015) Aziz Sancar (Türkiye) The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2015 was awarded jointly to Tomas Lindahl, Paul Modrich and Aziz Sancar "for mechanistic studies of DNA repair." The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2016 Yoshinori Oshumi; Japanese biologist and scientist. He was awarded the 2016 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine by the Swedish Nobel Foundation for his work in the field of autophagy, known as the self-digestion of cells.  The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2017 Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, and Michael W. Young won the Nobel Prize in Medicine for their discoveries in the field of molecular mechanisms that control the circadian rhythm (our biological clock). The scientists who succeeded in isolating a gene that controls the daily biological rhythm showed that this gene encodes a protein that accumulates in the cell during the night and dissolves during the day. Later, scientists identified other protein components encoded by this gene, thus revealing how cells operate the biological clock within themselves. 2019 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been shared between William Kaelin, Peter Ratcliffe and Gregg Semenza for their work on 'the adaptation of cells to oxygen adequacy'. Isı ve temas reseptörlerinin keşfi ile "Nesli tükenmiş homininlerin genomları ve insanın evrimi ile ilgili keşiflerinden dolayı" The discoveries by the two Nobel Prize laureates were critical for developing effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 during the pandemic that began in early 2020. Through their groundbreaking findings, which have fundamentally changed our understanding of how mRNA interacts with our immune system, the laureates contributed to the unprecedented rate of vaccine development during one of the greatest threats to human health in modern times. Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun discovered microRNA, a new class of tiny RNA molecules that play a crucial role in gene regulation. Their groundbreaking discovery in the small worm C. elegans revealed a completely new principle of gene regulation. This turned out to be essential for multicellular organisms, including humans. MicroRNAs are proving to be fundamentally important for how organisms develop and function. Number of Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded since 1901. It was not awarded on nine occasions: in 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1921, 1925, 1940, 1941 and 1942. Why were the Medicine Prizes not awarded in those years? In the statutes of the Nobel Foundation it says: “If none of the works under consideration is found to be of the importance indicated in the first paragraph, the prize money shall be reserved until the following year. If, even then, the prize cannot be awarded, the amount shall be added to the Foundation’s restricted funds.” During World War I and II, fewer Nobel Prizes were awarded. Major Elements: C, O, H, N, %96 Minor Elements: Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, Mg, %4 Trace Elements: Si, Fe, Mn, F, V, Cr, Cu, Co, I, Zn, Se, Mo, Sn. (Al, B?) %0,1 Chemical Reactions: 1- Synthesis Reactions; A + B = AB (Product) 2- Decomposition Reactions (separation); AB = A + B + energy 3- Change Reactions; AB + CD = AD + BC Anorganic Molecules: Water, CO2 - O2, Electrolites, Acids, bases, salts, Organic Molecules: 1- Carbohydrates, 2- Proteins, 3- Lipids, 4- Nucleic acids. Homeostasis Claude Bernard emphasized that the internal environment (milieu interieur) should be in balance. In 1932, Walter B. Cannon proposed the term homeostasis. (Greek homoiosis = same, stasis = standing, remaining) Homeostasis is achieved by homeostatic control mechanisms. There is a feedback control mechanism for this process. Information is received and transmitted by neural stimuli or chemical messengers (hormones, etc.), and then a regulation order is issued from the center. There are 3 basic structures in feed-back mechanisms. 1- Sensor mechanism 2- Control center 3- Effector mechanism Homeostasis: All processes for keeping the internal environment constant and unchanging, and keeping the physical and chemical properties and structure of the extracellular fluid within physiological limits. A simplified view of exchanges between external and internal environments. Respiratory, digestive and urinary systems are in constant contact with the external environment. Most of the homeostatic mechanisms work on the negative feedback principle and they are inhibitory. General components of a reflex arc that acts as a negative feedback control system. The response of the system has the effect of resisting or eliminating the stimulus. Hypothetical example of negative feedback. By inhibiting the activity of the first enzyme involved in the formation of a product, the product can regulate its rate of formation. Homeostatic regulation of blood pressure by negative feedback system. Positive feedback control of labor contractions during the delivery of a baby. The reflex of protecting body temperature against the decrease in body temperature when exposed to low outdoor temperature. Negative feedback samples Negative feedback mekanism in blood glucose. a). After meal, b).Fasting Positive feedback as demonstrated by the clotting process in the blood. Damaged endothelial cells in the wall of a blood vessel release chemical signals that attract and activate platelets. When clotting begins, the activated platelets produce their own chemical signals, attracting and activating more platelets to the wound site, which then produce more chemical signals, and so on. The cycle ends when the wound is completely closed. The perceived lack of oxygen in the breathing air increases the oxygen carrying capacity of the body in the short and long term. In the long term, increased secretion of erythropoietin increases erythrocyte production and ultimately their number. İç ortamın bazı faktörlerinde (↑X) bir artış, merkeze iletilir ve gerekli azaltıcı (↓X) düzenleme yapılır. İç ortamın bazı faktörlerinde (↓X) bir düşüş bir sensör tarafından algılanır. Arttırıcı uyarı ile düzenleme yapılır. Negatif geri bildirim döngüleri, sistem içinde dinamik bir sabitlik durumu sağlar. İç ortam. Negatif geri bildirim döngüsünün tamamlanması negatif işaretlerle gösterilir.