Industrial-Organizational Psychology Chapter 1 (PDF)

# Industrial-Organizational Psychology ## Chapter 1: Introduction to I/O Psychology - Applies the principles of psychology to the workplace - Purpose: to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings and the organizations they work in by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior...

# Industrial-Organizational Psychology ## Chapter 1: Introduction to I/O Psychology - Applies the principles of psychology to the workplace - Purpose: to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings and the organizations they work in by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior (Rucci, 2008). ### Main Difference Between I/O Psychology and Business Fields #### I/O Psychology - Examines factors that affect the people in an organization - Focus almost exclusively on issue involving the people in an organization - Relies extensively on research, quantitative methods, and testing techniques - Use empirical data and statistics - Reliance on the scientist-practitioner model - Act as scientists when they conduct research and as practitioners when they work with actual organizations. #### II. Business Fields - Broader aspects of running an organization such as marketing channels, transportation networks and cost accounting. - Examine such areas as accounting, economics, and marketing. **Note:** I/O psychologists are not clinical psychologists who happen to be in industry, and they do not conduct therapy for workers. ### Major Fields of I/O Psychology #### I. Industrial Approach (the "I" in I/O Psychology) - Determining the competencies needed to perform a job - Staffing the organization with employees who have those competencies. - Increasing those competencies through training #### II. Organizational Approach (the "O" in I/O Psychology) - Creates an organizational structure and culture that will motivate employees to perform well. - Give them the necessary information to do their jobs. - Provide working conditions that are safe and result in an enjoyable and satisfying work/life environment. ##### (1) Personnel Psychology - Concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees - Analyzing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees and evaluating employee performance. ##### (2) Organizational Psychology - Investigate the behavior of employees within the context of an organization. - Concerned with the issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational communication, conflict management, organizational change, and group processes within organization. - Often conduct surveys of employee attitudes to get ideas about what employees believe are an organization’s strengths and weaknesses. ##### (3) Human Factors/Ergonomics - Concentrating on the interaction between humans and machines. - Workplace design, human machine interaction, ergonomics and physical fatigue and stress. - Frequently work with engineers and other technical professionals to make the workplace safer and more efficient. - Draw a map, designing the most comfortable chair, and investigating the optimal work schedule. ### Brief History of I/O Psychology *(since 1879)* #### I. Walter Dill Scott (1903) - Wrote "The Theory of Advertising": Psychology was first applied to business. - 1911: Increasing Human Efficiency in Business. #### II. Hugo Münsterberg (1910) - *Psychology and Industrial Efficiency:* first published in English in 1913. #### III. Industrial Psychology - Seldom used prior to Word War I. - Common terms: economic psychology, business psychology, and employment psychology. #### IV. World War I - First big impact: large number of soldiers who had to be assigned to various units. - I/O psychologists were employed to test recruits and them place them in appropriate positions. - Army Alpha: Intelligence test used by the army for soldiers who can read. - More intelligent recruits were assigned to officer training. - Army Beta: Intelligence test used by the army for soldiers who cannot read. - Less intelligent to the infantry. #### V. John Watson - Developed perceptual and motor tests for potential pilots. - Served as a major in the U.S. Army in World War I #### VI. Henry Gant - Responsible for increasing the efficiency with which cargo ships were built, repaired and loaded. #### VII. Thomas A. Edison - Understood the importance of selecting the right employees. - 1920: 163-item knowledge test that he administered to over 900 applicants. - Test and passing score were so difficult that only 5% of the applicants passed! #### VIII. Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth - Improve productivity and reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by workers. . - Frank Gilbreth - Began his career as a contractor and became famous for developing improvements in bricklaying that reduced the number of motions needed to lay a brick from 18 to 42. - Lillian Moller Gilbreth - More educated: received her Ph.D. from Brown University (1915). - 1935: became a professor of management and engineering at Purdue University, the first woman to hold such a positions. - *Cheaper by the Dozen:* Had 12 children, and the efficiency methods they used to raise their children while having busy careers were the inspiration for the book and the movie. #### IX. 1930s - Expanded its scoper involved primarily in personnel issues such as the selection and placement of employees. #### Hawthorne Studies - Conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in the Chicago area. - Interpersonal interactions between managers and employees played a tremendous role in employee behavior. - Initially designed to investigate such issues as the effects of lighting levels, work schedules, wages, temperature, and rest breaks on employee performance. - Hawthorne Effect: employees change their behavior due solely to the fact that they are receiving attention or are being observed. #### X. 1960s - Increase their focus on human relations in the workplace and explore the effects of employee attitudes. #### XI. 1970s - Passage of several major pieces of civil rights legislation, focused the attention of HR professionals on developing fair selection techniques. - Use of sensitivity training and T-groups (laboratory training groups) for manager. - Understanding of many organizational psychology issues that involved employee satisfaction and motivation. - B.F. Skinner (1971) - *Beyond Freedom and Dignity*: increase use of behavior-modification techniques in organizations. #### XII. 1980s and 1990s - Four Major Changes - Increase use of fairly sophisticated statistical techniques and methods of analysis. - Application of cognitive psychology to industry - Effects of work on family life and leisure activities (employee stress) - Developing methods to select employees. - Cognitive ability tests, personality tests, biodata, and structured interviews. #### XIII. 2000s - Rapid advances in technology - Tests and surveys are now administered on the Internet. - Employers recruit and screen applicants online. - Job seekers use such social media outlets as Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook to find jobs. - Employees are being trained using e-learning and distance education. - Managers are holding meetings in cyberspace. ### Employment of I/O Psychologists #### I. Colleges and Universities - Typically teach and conduct research. - Some work as administrators. (e.g., deans, provosts, vice presidents). #### II. Consulting Firms - Help a wide variety of organizations become more productive by helping them: - Select a high quality and diverse workforce. - Designing systems that will motivate employees while treating them fairly. - Training employees. - Ensuring organizations treat applicants and employees in a legal and ethical manner. #### III. Private Sector - Work for a single company such as IBM, Microsoft, and FedEx, whereas consultants work with many companies. #### IV. Public Sector - Work for a local, state, or federal government agency. ### Research in I/O Psychology #### I. Why Conduct Research? ##### (1) Answering Questions and Making Decisions - Saves organizations money (increased employee satisfaction, increased productivity, and fewer accidents, employment interviews). ##### (2) Research and Everyday Life - Understanding research helps you to critically listen and analyze results of these studies to make more intelligent decisions. ##### (3) Common Sense Is Often Wrong - Eg., Common sense that the world was flat and that a person sailing toward the horizon would fall off the Earth. #### II. Considerations in Conducting Research ##### A. Ideas, Hypotheses, and Theories - First step: Decide what to research. - Hypothesis: Educated prediction about the answer to a question. - Theory: A systematic set of assumptions regarding the cause and nature of behavior. - This is where we based our hypothesis/prediction. ##### B. Literature Reviews - Second step: Search the literature for similar research. - Four Types of Periodicals - Journals: Consist of articles written by researchers directly reporting the results of a study, difficult to read (and boring) but are the best source of unbiased and accurate information. - Bridge Publications: Designed to "bridge the gap" between academia and the applied world, usually written by professors but not as formal or statistically complex as articles in journals. - Trade Magazines: Contain articles usually written by professional writers who have developed expertise in a given field, do not cover all the research on a topic and can be somewhat biased, seldom directly reporting the methods and results of new research. - Magazines: An unscientific collection of articles about a wide range of topics, good sources of ideas but terrible sources to use in support of a scientific hypothesis, often written by professional writers who do not have training in the topic and thus little expertise. - Internet: Prone to inaccurate information. ##### C. The Location of the Study - Third step: Decide whether to conduct the study in the laboratory or in the field. - Laboratory Research: Disadvantage: external validity or generalizability, Advantage: can control many variables that are not of interest. - External Validity/Generalizability: The extent to which research results can be expected to hold true outside the specific setting in which they were obtained. - Field Research: Research conducted in a natural setting. - Disadvantages: Internal Validity: loses in control of extraneous variables. - Informed Consent: Ethical dilemma, require that subjects participate in studies of their own free will, can not only difficult to obtain but change the way people behave. - Institutional Review Boards: A committee designated to ensure the ethical treatment of research subjects. - Pay close attention to confidentiality. ##### D. Research Method - Fourth step: Type of research method to use. - Experiments: Cause-and-effect relationships, Independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter, Manipulation of one or more independent variables, Random assignment of subjects to experimental and control conditions. - Manipulation: The alteration of a variable by an experimenter in expectation that alteration will result in a change in the dependent variable. - Independent Variable: The manipulated variable in an experiment. - Dependent Variable: The measure of behavior that is expected to change as a result of changes in the independent variable. - Quasi-experiments: Experimenter either does not manipulate the independent variable, subjects are not randomly assigned to conditions, Often used to evaluate the results of a new program implemented by an organization. - Archival Research: Use of previously collected data or records to answer a research question, Advantage: Not being obtrusive or expensive, Disadvantage: Records in files are not always accurate and are not always kept up-to-date, date may never recorded. - Surveys: Ask people their opinion, Variety of Methods: mail, personal interviews, and phone, email, and the Internet. - Well-designed Survey Questions: Easy to understand, use simple language, do not ask about hypothetical situations, and keep the questions relatively short. - Meta-analysis: Statistical method of reaching conclusions based on previous research, Prior to meta-analysis read all of the available research and then make a rather subjective conclusion based on the articles. - Researcher goes through each article, determines the effect size for each article and then finds a statistical average of effect sizes across all articles. - Effect size: A statistic that indicates the amount of change caused by an experimental manipulation. - Mean Effect Size: A statistic that is the average of the effect sizes for all studies included. - Correlation coefficients (r): Used as the effect size, resulting from performing a correlation, that indicates the magnitude and direction of a relationship. - Difference score (d): Used as the effect size. - Indicates how many standard deviations separate the mean score for the experimental group from the control group. - Looking at the difference between two groups - less than .40: considered as small. - between .40 and .80: moderate. - higher than .80: large. - .44: average effect size for an organizational intervention. - Practical significance: Extent to which the results of a study have actual impact on human behavior. ##### E. Subject Samples - Fifth step: Decide regarding the size, composition, and method of selecting the subjects. - Random Sample: Every member of the relevant population had an equal chance of being chosen to participate in the study. - Convenience Sample: nonrandom research sample that is used because it is easily available. - Random Assignment: Unbiased assignment of subjects in a research sample to the various experimental and control conditions. ##### F. Running the Study - Sixth step: run the study and collect data. - All instructions to the subjects be stated in a standardized fashion and at a level that is understandable. - Debriefed: Informing the subject in an experiment about the purpose of the study in which he or she was a participant and providing any other relevant information. ##### G. Statistical Analysis - Seventh step: results are statistically analyzed. - Significance levels: Statistical significance: Indicate only the level of confidence we can place on a result being the product of chance and nothing about the strength of the results. - Effect Sizes: Practical significance of study. - Correlation: To determine the relationship between two variables. - Intervening Variable: Third variable that can often explain the relationship between two other variables. - Correlation Coefficient: Result of correlational analysis, Range from 1 to 1: the further coefficient is from zero, the greater the relationship between two variables. - (+) and (-) signs: Direction of the correlation - Positive (+) Correlation: Values of one variable increase, so do the values of a second variable. - Negative (-) Correlation: Values of one variable increase, the values of a second variable decrease. ### Ethics in Industrial/Organizational Psychology. - Ethical Dilemmas: Ambiguous situations that require a personal judgment of what is right or wrong, because there are no rules, policies, or laws guiding such decisions. - Type A Dilemma: High level of uncertainty as to what is right or wrong, there appears to be no best solution. - Type B Dilemma: Also called "rationalizing dilemmas", "rationalize" they are right because "everyone else does it," Individuals know what is right but choose the solution that is most advantageous to themselves. # Chapter 2: Job Analysis and Evaluation - **Job Analysis (Work Analysis):** Gathering and analyzing information about the work an employee performs, the conditions under which the work is performed, and the worker characteristics needed to perform the work. - Foundation for almost all human resources activities. ### Importance of Job Analysis #### I. Writing Job Descriptions - Job Description: Written result of a job analysis. - A brief, two- to five-page summary of the tasks and job requirements. #### II. Employee Selection - Clear understanding of the tasks to be performed and the competencies needed. - Select tests or develop interview questions that will determine whether a particular applicant possesses the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities. #### III. Training - Job analyses yield lists of job activities that can be used to create training programs. #### IV. Personpower Planning - Determine worker mobility within an organization. - To what other jobs can they expect to eventually be promoted and become successful. - Peter Principle. - Promoting employees until they eventually reach their highest level of incompetence. - Continue to rise up the ladder until you reach the point where you can no longer perform well. #### V. Performance Appraisal - Construction of a performance appraisal instrument. - Excellent source of employee training and counseling. #### VI. Job Classification - Enable to classify jobs into groups based on similarities in requirements and duties. - Useful for determining pay levels, transfers, and promotions. #### VII. Job Evaluation - Used to determine the worth of a job. #### VIII. Job Design - Used to determine the optimal way in which a job should be performed. - Wasted and unsafe motions can be eliminated. - Resulting in higher productivity and reduced numbers of job injuries. #### IX. Compliance with Legal Guidelines - Employment decision must be based on job-related information. - Legally acceptable way to directly determine job relatedness is by job analysis. - Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (UGESP, 1978): HR principles designed to ensure compliance with federal standards-contain several direct references to the necessity of job analysis. - Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures (SIOP, 2003): A document that provides guidance from professionals in the field of I/O psychology regarding the employee selection process. - Griggs v. Duke Power (1971): Employment decisions were based in part upon applicants' possession of a high school diploma, not established the job relatedness of the high school diploma requirement. #### X. Organizational Analysis - Job analysts often become aware of certain problems within an organization. - Lapses in organizational communication -correct problems and help an organization function better. - Job Analysis Interview: Obtaining information about a job by talking to a person performing it. ### Writing a Good Job Description - Duties can always be added to a job description. - The phrase "and performs other job-related duties as assigned" should be included. #### Eight Sections ##### (1) Job Title - Describes the nature of the job, its power and status level, and the competencies needed to perform the job. - Aids in employee selection and recruitment. - Determines whether their skills and experience match those required for the job. - Affect perceptions of the status and worth of a job. - **Example**: administrative assistant - executive secretary (associated to female roles). - David Faloona (industrial psychologist) - Started a new job at Washington National Insurance in Chicago as psychometric technician. - Changed to "personnel assistant." Supervisors began consulting with him on human resources related problems. ##### (2) Brief Summary - Only a paragraph in length but should briefly describe the nature and purpose of the job. ##### (3) Work Activities - Lists the tasks and activities. - Organized into categories to make the job description easy to read and understand. ##### (4) Tools and Equipment Used - Lists all the tools and equipment used to perform the work activities. - Used primarily for employee selection and training. ##### (5) Job Context - Describes the environment in which the employee works. - Mentions stress level, work schedule, physical demands, level of responsibility, temperature, number of coworkers, degree of danger and others. - Important to those individuals with disability to determine if they are capable to perform the job. ##### (6) Work Performance - Outline standards of performance. - Brief description of how an employee's performance is evaluated and what work standards are expected. ##### (7) Compensation Information - Contain information on the salary grade, whether the position is exempt, and the compensable factors used to determine salary. - Salary Grade: A cluster of jobs of similar worth. ##### (8) Job Competencies (Job Specifications) - Refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to successfully perform a job. - Competencies section should be divided into two subsections: - Employee must have at the time of hiring. - KSAOs that can be obtained after being hired. ### Preparing for a Job Analysis #### I. Who Will Conduct the Analysis? - Trained individual in the Human Resources department. - Can also be job incumbents, supervisors, or outside consultants. - Must be thoroughly trained in job analysis procedures. - Job Incumbents & Supervisors: Need to be released from other duties. - Consultants: Good choice as they are well trained and have extensive experience, Drawback: expensive (charge between $100 and $500 per hour). - College Interns: Tend to have job analysis training and experience and can be employed for a relatively small cost. #### II. How Often Should a Job Description Be Updated? - Should be updated if a job changes significantly. - High-tech jobs - probably often. - Package handling - not change substantially for 20 years. #### Job Crafting - Employees unofficially change their job duties to better fit their interests and skills. - Add tasks they want to perform and to remove tasks that they don't want perform. #### III. Which Employees Should Participate? - Few people in each job – all employees participate. - Goal: identify the tasks performed in a job, the conditions under which the tasks are performed, and the KSAOs needed to perform. ### Conducting a Job Analysis #### Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed - Identify the major job dimensions and the tasks performed for each dimension, the tools and equipment used to perform the tasks, and the conditions under which the tasks are performed. - Gathering Existing Information: Gather existing job descriptions, task inventories, and training manuals, From the organization with which you are working, other organizations, trade publications, and journal articles. - Interviewing Subject-Matter Experts: Asking the employee to describe what she does from the moment she first enters the parking lot at work to the moment she arrives back home, Subject-Matter Experts (SMEs): Sources such as supervisors and incumbents who are knowledgeable about a job. - Two Main Forms: - Individual Interview: Job analyst interviews only one employee at a time. - Group interview (SME conference): a larger number of employees are interviewed together. - Committee-Based Approach: A committee of SMEs meets to brainstorm the major duties involved. - Identifies the tasks (work-related activities) that must be completed. - Results are then summarized in job descriptions. - Ammerman Technique: A job analysis method in which a group of job experts identifies the objectives and standards to be met by the ideal worker. #### Observations - Job analyst watches job incumbents perform their jobs. - Advantage: see the worker do her job and thus obtain information that the worker may have forgotten to mention during the interview. - Disadvantage: very obtrusive, observing someone without their knowing is difficult. #### Job Participation - Job analyst performs the job being analyzed. - Advantage: easier to understand every aspect of a job once you have done it yourself. - Disadvantage: limited to certain occupations that involve quick training and minimal consequences from an error. #### Step 2: Write Task Statements - Used in the task inventory. - A questionnaire containing a list of tasks each of which the job incumbent rates on a series of scales such as importance and time spent. - Must contain an action (what is done) and an object (to which the action is done). - Include where the task is done, how it is done, why it is done, and when it is done - "Bogus Tasks": Few tasks not part of a job be placed into the task inventory. #### Step 3: Rate Task Statements - Conduct a task analysis. - The process of identifying the tasks for which employees need to be trained. - Using a group of SMEs to rate each task statement on the frequency and the importance or criticality of the task. - Tasks are not included in the job description - average frequency rating is 0.5 or below. - Tasks are not included in the final task inventory - either an average rating of 0.5 or less on either the frequency (F) or importance (I) scales or an average combined rating (CR) of less than 2. #### Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs (Job Specifications) - Commonly referred to as competencies - Link KSAOs to tasks: - A group of SMEs brainstorm the KSAOs needed to perform each task. - Another group of SMEs is given the list and asked to rate the extent to which each of the KSAOs is essential. - KSAOs with an average score of .5 or less are eliminated. - Knowledge: A body of information needed to perform a task. - Skill: Need to hold the gun properly and allow for such external conditions as the target distance and wind conditions, The proficiency to perform a learned task, A police officer accurately shooting a gun. - Ability: The basic capacity for performing a wide range of tasks, acquiring a knowledge, or developing a skill, Have the hand strength, steadiness, and vision necessary to hold the gun, pull the trigger, and aim properly. - Other characteristics: Personality, willingness, interest, and tangible factors like licenses, experience, and degrees. - Competency Modeling: When competencies are tied to an organization's strategic initiatives and plans rather than to specific tasks. #### Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAO - Determine the best methods to tap the KSAOs needed at the time of hire. - Interviews, work samples, ability tests, personality tests, reference checks, integrity tests, biodata, and assessment centers. ### Using Other Job Analysis Methods #### I. Methods Providing General Information About Worker Activities ##### (1) Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) - Structured instrument developed at Purdue University by McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham. - Contains 194 items organized into six main dimensions: - Information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with other persons, job context, and other job-related variables such as work schedule, pay, and responsibility - Advantage: inexpensive and takes relatively little time to use. - Disadvantage: suggest that incumbents have education levels between grades 10 and 12 but found out that it is written at the college graduate level. ##### (2) Job Structure Profile (JSP) - Revised version of the PAQ was developed by Patrick and Moore (1985). - Designed to be used more by the job analyst than by the job incumbent. - Changes in item content and style, new items to increase the discriminatory power of the intellectual and decision-making dimensions. ##### (3) Job Elements Inventory (JEI) - Developed by Cornelius and Hakel as an alternative to the PAQ. - Contains 153 items and has a readability level appropriate for an employee with only a tenth-grade education. ##### (4) Functional Job Analysis (FJA) - Initially designed by Sidney Fine(1955) as a method that could be used by the federal government to analyze and compare thousands of jobs. ##### (5) Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) - Requires incumbents or job analysts to view a series of abilities and to rate the level of ability needed to perform the job. - Advantages: - Easy to use by incumbents or trained analysts, demonstrates acceptable levels of reliability, and supported by years of research. - Advantages over TTA are that it is more detailed, is commercially available, is available in several languages, and can be completed online. ##### (6) Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI) - 132-item inventory developed by Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, and Plamondon (2000) - Taps the extent to which a job incumbent needs to adapt to situations on the job. ##### (7) Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) - Developed by Raymark, Schmit, and Guion (1997) to identify the personality types needed to perform job-related tasks. - Consists of 107 items tapping 12 personality dimensions that fall under the “Big 5” personality dimensions. ##### (8) Performance Improvements Characteristics (PIC) - Similar to the PPRF, the 48 questions help determine which of the seven main personality traits are needed to perform a given job. #### II. Methods Providing Information About Tools and Equipment ##### (1) Job Components Inventory (JCI) - Developed by Banks, Jackson, Stafford and Warr (1983) for use in England. - More than 400 questions covering five major categories: - tools and equipment, perceptual and physical requirements, mathematical requirements, communication requirements, and decision making and responsibility. #### III. Methods Providing Information About the Work Environment ##### (1) AET (Arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahren zur Tätigkeitsanalyse) - Means ergonomic job analysis procedure. - Developed in Germany by Rohmert and Landau with 216-item. - Primarily concerned with the relationship between the worker and work objects. #### IV. Methods Providing Information About Competencies ##### (1) Occupational Information Network (O*NET) - The job analysis system used by the federal government that has replaced the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT). - Includes information about the occupation (generalized work activities, work context, organizational context) and the worker characteristics (ability, work style, occupational values and interests, knowledge, skills, and education). - Information about such economic factors as labor demand, labor supply, salaries, and occupational trends. ##### (2) Critical Incident Technique (CIT) - Developed by John Flanagan that uses written reports of good and bad employee behavior. - Disadvantage: emphasis on the difference between excellent and poor performance ignores routine duties. ##### (3) Job Components Inventory (JCI) - Provides information about the perceptual, physical, mathematical, communication, decision making, and responsibility skills needed to perform the job. ##### (4) Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA) - A 33-item questionnaire developed by Lopez that identifies traits necessary to successfully perform a job. - Cover five trait categories: physical, mental, learned, motivational, and social. - Advantage: short and reliable and can correctly identify important traits. - Disadvantage: it is not available commercially. ##### (5) Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) - Requires incumbents or job analysts to view a series of abilities and to rate the level of ability needed to perform the job. - Advantages: Easy to use by incumbents or trained analysts, demonstrates acceptable levels of reliability, and is supported by years of research. - Advantages over TTA are that it is more detailed, is commercially available, is available in several languages, and can be completed online. ##### (6) Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI) - 132-item inventory developed by Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, and Plamondon (2000). - Taps the extent to which a job incumbent needs to adapt to situations on the job. ##### (7) Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) - Developed by Raymark, Schmit, and Guion (1997) to identify the personality types needed to perform job-related tasks. - Consists of 107 items tapping 12 personality dimensions that fall under the “Big 5” personality dimensions. ##### (8) Performance Improvements Characteristics (PIC) - Similar to the PPRF, the 48 questions help determine which of the seven main personality traits are needed to perform a given job. ### Evaluation of Methods - (Levine, Ash, & Bennett, 1980; Levine, Ash, Hall, & Sistrunk, 1983) - 1. The PAQ is seen as the most standardized technique and the CIT the least standardized. - 2. The CIT takes the least amount of job analyst training and task analysis the most. - 3. The PAQ is the least costly method and the CIT the most. - 4. The PAQ takes the least amount of time to complete and task analysis the most. - 5. Task analysis has the highest-quality results and TTA the lowest. - 6. Task analysis reports are the longest and job-elements reports the shortest. - 7. The CIT has been rated the most useful and the least. - 8. Task analysis gives the best overall job picture and the PAQ the worst. # Chapter 3: Legal Issues in Employee Selection - **Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC):** A branch of the Department of Labor charged with investigating and prosecuting complaints of employment discrimination. ### Resolving the Complaint Internally #### I. Forms of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) - Method of resolving conflict internally. - Grievance system: Employee files a complaint with the organization and a person or committee within the organization makes a decision regarding the complaint. - Mediation: Neutral third party is asked to help the two parties reach an agreement. - Not choosing which side is correct unlike arbitration. - Arbitration: Neutral third party is asked to choose which side is correct. - Binding arbitration: Neither party is allowed to appeal the decision. - Nonbinding arbitration: Either party may appeal the decision to the court. ### Filing a Discrimination Charge - State agency is used; violation involves a state law. - Federal agency (usually the EEOC); violations of federal law. - EEOC complaint must be filed within 180 days of the discriminatory act. - Within 300 days if the complainant has already filed a complaint with a state agency. ### Outcomes of an EEOC Investigation #### I. Charge Does Not Have Merit - Complainant accepts the decision: process ends. - Does not accept the decision: issued a "right to sue" letter. - Private attorney and file the case himself. #### II. Charge Has Merit - EEOC believes has merits. - Try to work out a settlement between the claimant and employer without taking the case to court. - Offering a job or promotion, payment of back wages, and the payment of compensatory or punitive damages. - Settlement cannot be reached. - Goes to a federal district court, with the EEOC representing the person filing the complaint. ### Determining Whether an Employment Decision is Legal - Determining the legality of an employment practice. - Decide whether the practice directly refers to a member of a protected class. - Protected Class: Any group of people for whom protective legislation has been passed #### I. Race - Four races - African American, White, Asian American, and Native American Indian. - Fifth Amendment: Mandates that the federal government may not deny a person equal protection under the law. - May not intentionally discriminate or allow intentional discrimination to take place. - Fourteenth Amendments: Mandates that no state may deny a person equal protection under the law. - May not intentionally discriminate or allow intentional discrimination to take place. - Civil Rights Acts of 1964 (known as Title VII) and 1991: Extended the scope of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the private sector and to local governments. - Fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual or otherwise to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment. - Limit, segregate, or classify his employees. - Do not require that the employment practice discriminate intentionally to be deemed potentially illegal as determined through statistical analysis of selection rates and by the presence or absence of adverse impact. - **Color:** Protects individuals against discrimination based specifically on variations in skin color. - 1989 case of Walker v. Secretary of the Treasury: Illegally fired a lighter-skinned African American employee. - **Sex:** Protected under Civil Rights Acts and Equal Pay Act of 1963. - Intentional discrimination against either women or men is illegal. - Included in the definition of sex are sexual stereotypes. - Illegal to not hire a female applicant because she looks or dresses too masculine. - **National Origin:** Protected under the Civil Rights Acts. - Most common complaints is about "English only" or "understandable English" speaking requirements. - Language requirements are legal if they are job related. - Limited to communication during "company time". - EEOC and the Delano Regional Medical Center Hospital forbid Filipino employees from speaking Tagalog. - **Religion:** Also protected under the Civil Rights Acts. - Illegal to use an individual's religion as a factor in an employment decision. - Require organizations to make accommodations for religious beliefs. - Days of Worship: Religions forbid their members from working on particular days. - Seventh-day Adventists and Orthodox Jews - cannot work from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday. - Greek Orthodox Church - cannot work on Sunday. - Worship Practices: Require members to pray at certain times - Salat ritual prayer five times daily. - Fasting requirements - Islam must refrain from food and drink during the 30-day period of Ramadan (affect work performance). - Cannot celebrate birthdays or nonreligious holidays (Jehovah