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Topic 2: Independent Africa How was independence in Africa realised in the 1960s and 1970s. PART 3: Angola _______________________________________________ What was the impact of internal and external factors on Africa during the 1960s and 1970s? Case Study: Ang...

Topic 2: Independent Africa How was independence in Africa realised in the 1960s and 1970s. PART 3: Angola _______________________________________________ What was the impact of internal and external factors on Africa during the 1960s and 1970s? Case Study: Angola 1. How was Africa drawn into the Cold War The process of decolonisation in Africa coincided with the Cold War. In the late 1940s and 1950s the US Cold War competition with the USSR began to dominate US foreign policy. One of the biggest fears was that as Europe granted their colonies independence, Soviet-supported communist parties might achieve power in the new states. The USA feared the balance of power would shift in favour of the USSR and this would deny the USA and its allies access to economic resources. USA’s aid packages, technical assistance and sometimes even military intervention aimed to encourage newly independent nations to adopt governments that aligned with the West. The USSR adopted the same policy and encouraged newly independent nations to lean towards communism which was non-imperialist. 2. Competing spheres of influence: trade, conflict and aid For the most part, external powers competed in Africa by providing aid and seeking trade alliances.  Africa’s natural resources remained of interest to the colonising nations and the superpowers. Resources such as minerals, oils and agricultural commodities. Without proper manufacturing capabilities, many newly independent African countries relied on these resources for income. Page 1 of 12   This meant that economic dependence of former colonies continued, a dependency that is referred to as neo-colonialism.  In order to spread their sphere of influence over newly independent African countries, the superpowers often invested in these countries and provided aid in order to promote their ideology over the opposing ideology. Sometimes this aid came in the form of military aid, either to states or rebel groups.  US, the USSR and China helped to prolong and exacerbate African conflicts. Angola - In 1961, Angola was economically thriving - Well-developed infrastructure and well-established agricultural industry - Exported timber, ivory, cotton, coffee and cocoa - Major exporter of iron and diamonds - Oil had also been discovered in 1955 Angola was therefore a very attractive sphere of influence for the superpowers and their allies competing for access, via trade, to agricultural goods, minerals and oil that could be used by their own populations. During the Angolan War of Independence (1961 to 1975) there was conflict between the various liberation movements. - Each was vying for power - This lasted through the War of Independence and throughout the civil war which followed - This ongoing conflict was drawn into the broader Cold War conflict between the superpowers and their allies - This determined which liberation movement received funding and aid, the type of aid and from whom 3. Angola : Colonialism and independence Angola, as a coastal country on the west coast of Africa, had early contact with Portuguese explorers trying to a sea route to the Far East, particularly India. The Portuguese first landed in Angola in 1483. This early relationship involved the exchanging new technology such as firearms for slaves, ivory and minerals.  The Portuguese Colony of Angola was established at Luanda in 1576 with the arrival of 100 families and 400 soldiers. Page 2 of 12   Through treaties and wars, the Portuguese established control along the coastal area of Angola, setting up forts and trading posts. Little effort was made to control the inland of Angola until the Berlin Conference of 1885 which fixed the colony’s boarders.  By 1650 the acquisition of slaves for Brazilian plantations from the region and the interior dominated the colonial economy to the extent that some regarded Angola as more under the control of the colony of Brazil than Portugal itself.  Before the slave trade was abolished, Portugal was quite heavily involved in the slave trade, using their trading posts in Angola to facilitate the trade. Approximately three million people were capture and transported to Angola’s coast line over three centuries.  The slave trade negatively affected population growth in the area and most African kingdoms had been defeated by 1605.  After the slave trade, the colonial economy was focussed on crops for export: cotton, corn, coffee and sisal, using African labourers who were poorly paid or forced into work by taxation.  Despite huge Portuguese control over the country, few settled there and by the 1950s only about 150,000 Portuguese whites lived in Angola.  Even this number was dominated by a wealthy elite of plantation owners.  After World War 2 the Portuguese government under the dictator Antonio Salazar's Estado Novo regime was determined not only to deny independence to its African colonies but to increase settlement.  The white population of Angola more than doubled between the mid-1950s and the eve of independence.  Most of these new settlers were poor labourers from Portugal - a state which was one of the poorest and which had the highest illiteracy rate in Europe - who both resented the plantation-owning elite and saw an opportunity to improve their lot by exploiting cheap African labour.  This increasingly volatile mix of class and racial division lead to the outbreak of the War of Independence in 1961. 4. The War of Independence Liberation movements across Africa, and the emergence of newly independent African countries strengthened the resolve of independence movements in Angola in the late 1950s. These independence movements were further motivated to achieve freedom when Portugal rejected Angola’s call for independence in 1960. The War of Independence can be divided into four phases. Page 3 of 12 Stage 1 The first stage began on 3 January 1961 with the Baixa de Cassanje Revolt, when Angolan peasants boycotted the Cotonang Company’s cotton fields where they demanded better working conditions and higher wages.  Burned identification cards and attacked Portuguese traders  Portuguese air force responded by bombing 20 villages, killing about 700 On 15 March, Holden Roberto and his Union of Peoples of Angola (UPA) launched an incursion into Angola from his base in the Congo. His forces took farms, government outposts and trading centres, killing officials and civilians.  Portuguese armed forced hit back from this point on  Internal resistance escalated into guerrilla war that lasted until 1974  The MPLA also launched attacks during this time UPA  Established in 1954 (later to become the Frente National de Libertacdo de Angola - FNLA - in 1962) under Holden Roberto  Movement for the Bakongo people which wished to re-establish the 16th century Bakongo kingdom, but was also a protest movement against forced labour.  The FNLA received aid from the US from 1961, as well as from the governments of Zaire and Israel.  In 1966, Roberto's deputy Jonas Savimbi formed a breakaway movement called UNITA and the FNLA faded away soon after independence. Stage 2 In the period immediately before independence, there were ideological and power struggles among the main liberation groups, as well as disunity, resulting in conflicts. The only factor that they had in common was the desire to liberate Angola.  Thus, there were huge divides between the Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola (MPLA), FNLA and Unido Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola (UNITA)  The lack of cohesion between these groups would have been disasterous for independence  Coup in Portugal and the Carnation Revolution of 1974 helped to end Portugal’s control over Angola Page 4 of 12 MPLA  Formed in 1956 and came under the leadership of Agostinho Neto by 1962.  Neto would later rule most of Angola until his death in 1979. T  he MPLA's core base includes the Amabundu ethnic group and the educated intelligentsia of the capital city, Luanda.  Its ideology was Marxist and it received aid from the USSR as well as Cuba. UNITA  Founded by Jonas Savimbi when broke with Holden Roberto's FNLA in 1966.  UNITA's leadership and support was drawn heavily from Angola's Ovimbundu ethnic group and its base of support was in the south-eastern province of Cuando Cubango.  UNITA’s policies were originally Maoist and it received support from China until 1974.  They aimed at rural rights and recognized ethnic divisions.  adopting In later years, however, UNITA became more aligned with the United States, espousing support for capitalism in Angola. Stage 3  The increasing costs of the African wars, lengthening of conscription and repressive conditions in Portugal prompted young military officers to stage a coup in Portugal in 1974.  Called the Carnation Revolution, this coup overthrew the Estado Novo. And the new military government promised both to introduce democracy to Portugal and grant un independence to Portuguese colonies. Negotiations between the Portuguese government and three liberation movements was complex as they were deeply divided through ideology and ethnic differences. On 10 January 1975, the leaders of the liberation movements met with Portuguese representatives and on 15 January they signed the Alvor Accord in which they agreed on the following: 1. Tripartite transitional government headed by the Portuguese High Commissioner 2. Power sharing between movements and they would also integrate their armed forces 3. National elections would be held within 9 months for a National Assembly of 150 seats 4. Transitional government would be sworn in on 31 January 1975 Page 5 of 12 5. Date for independence was set for 11 November 1975 However, the coalition soon feel apart as each movement became more unwilling to share power and attempted to take control by force.  July 1975: MPLA and the FNLA (with UNITA) attack each other for control over the capital, Luanda  MPLA with Soviet support forced the FNLA and UNITA out of Luanda and by August the MPLA has control of 11 of the 15 provincial capitals  23 October: South Africa intervenes by sending 1 500 to 2 000 troops from Namibia into southern Angola, which they occupied and handed back to UNITA  FNLA was planning to attack Luanda from the northeast, back by troops from Zaire and South Africa and the FNLA coalition was 30km outside Luanda by 10 November  However, the MPLA with large Cuban forces, forced the FNLA to retreat in what became known as the Battle of Death Road  The MPLA-Cuban victory over the FNLA largely ended its importance and it soon faded away after independence Stage 4 The Portuguese High Commissioner of Angola, Admiral Leonel Cardoso abandoned the country without formally handing over control to any succeeding government.  Agostinho Neto, leader of the MPLA – which had control of the capital and guaranteed support from the USSR and Cuba – declared the People’s Republic of Angola on 11 November 1975 in accordance with the Alvor Accords.  UNITA and the FNLA set up a rival government (the People’s Democratic Republic of Angola) in the mountainous region of Huambo.  Claiming they had control of 11 of the provinces, they enlisted support of South African forces in neighbouring Namibia to try and remove the Marxist MPLA.  Thus, instead of celebrating independence, Angola was plunged into a Civil War, primarily between UNITA and the MPLA, which continued for the next 27 years, stopping only briefly with the Bicesse Accord of 31 May 1991. Page 6 of 12 5. Outbreak of civil war in 1974 Although all three forces sought to present a united front and were represented in the capital Luanda, disputes over territory, ideology and resources broke into fighting almost immediately. Talks between the liberation movements and Portugal came to a conclusion in 1975, with the acceptance by Portugal of the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA as the representatives of the Angolan people, the setting of November 11 as Independence Day and plans for elections just before independence, in October, to choose a government. However, by October the MPLA had forced FNLA and UNITA forces out of the capital. The Angolan civil war began even before independence was declared. 6. The involvement of the USSR, USA, Cuba, China and South Africa in Angola As independence day approached, Angola became a focus of attention for both sides in the Cold War. The USSR The involvement of the USSR in Angola was an attempt to counter capitalism in the region.  Strategy motivated by Cold War  Supporting the MPLA, they hoped to entrench communism in Angola  USSR supported the MPLA as early as 1962 with materials and weapons  1974, USSR announced that they recognised the MPLA as the true representatives of the Angolan people  In the entirety of its support, the USSR is estimated to have given the MPLA $430 million a year, 1000 technical staff and military advisors  The MPLA retained control of the capital and Angola's offshore oil wealth. The Soviet Union had supplied weapons during the War of Independence while Cuba had provided some training.  The USSR was interested in improving this relationship and perhaps getting access to bases in Angola if the MPLA took power. China China entered the Angolan conflict in June 1974, two months before Portugal announced its intention to give Angola independence.  Involvement was mainly directed against capitalist-inclined movements in Angola  Originally supported the FNLA, which was odd because it was anti-communist Page 7 of 12   However, FNLA was more internally stable than the MPLA  China also wanted to spread their sphere of influence independently from the USSR  UNITA's base in the south gave it control over much of Angola's diamond wealth. Up until independence, UNITA had received support from China - 450 tonnes of weapons in 1974 - mostly because the MPLA had Soviet support and China wished to counterbalance this.  China's involvement in Africa increased greatly in the 1970s, and apart from aid to UNITA, China became the main source of military aid and training to FRELIMO in Mozambique and to Robert Mugabe’s ZAPU in Zimbabwe.  Economically, China financed and built the Tan-Zam railway between Zambia and the Tanzanian coast.  By 1975, UNITA became increasingly aligned with capitalist policies and the US saw an opportunity to prevent Soviet influence spreading in Africa by aiding UNITA against the MPLA. Cuba Fidel Castro of Cuba saw the FNLA as an “American pawn” and so they provided military training and assistance to the MPLA.  Prior to independence there was already 1500 Cuban troops in Angola  Few days after independence, there were 4000 Cuban troops in Angola  This number increased by 10 000 a month and reached its peak at 50 000  Cuba had been providing support to the MPLA since the 1960s, as it had to any African liberation movement that espoused Marxist ideology.  However, Cuban involvement in Angola increased dramatically from 1975 and tens of thousands of Cuban soldiers would serve in Angola between 1975 and 1989.  Cuban involvement gave the MPLA the edge to win back Angola from advancing UNITA backed by South Africa South Africa The involvement of South Africa in Angola was twofold. 1. To support UNITA to fight against the communist-inclined MPLA 2. Stop the spread of communism in South West Africa (Namibia) - stop the establishment of a Marxist government on the boarder of South Africa Page 8 of 12 - destroy SWAPO (who was fighting against South Africa to gain Namibian independence from South Africa) bases in south Angola - protect its investment in the Cunene (hydroelectric) dam project which the MPLA threatened to nationalise In other words  South Africa had a number of interests in Angola. During the 1960s, South Africa had been anxious to support the white minority colonial regime so that there would remain a cordon of white-dominated countries between apartheid South Africa and newly independent African states.  South Africa also had economic interests in Angola, in diamond mines, railways and most importantly the Cunene River hydroelectric complex along the border between Angola and South African-ruled Namibia (then called South West Africa).  The long Angolan-Namibian border also gave South Africa a military interest in Angola, as the Namibian liberation movement, the South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO) was seeking support from the MPLA and the ability to set up training bases in Angola would greatly improve SWAPO's ability to fight South African rule in Namibia.  Later, the ANC would also seek and receive support from the MPLA government in Angola. International involvement in Angolan affairs is clear in the events before Independence Day in 1975. South Africa and USA The primary aim of the involvement of the USA in Angola was the attempt to keep Angola from becoming a Marxist state and to counter the spread of communism in the region.  1959, USA starting economic support to Holden Roberto of the FNLA  After independence, the FNLA received arms from the USA  Clark Amendment of 1974 reduced funding to the FNLA  The USA supported UNITA for the same reasons as the FNLA but covert funding continued to UNITA after the Clark Amendment  The USA worked with South Africa to support UNITA  With the encouragement of the United States, Prime Minister BJ Vorster met with the UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi and agreed to give him military support in an operation to help UNITA gain control of the capital Luanda before the declaration of independence.  The SADF sent almost 2000 soldiers into Angola in October 1975, called Operation Savannah, with the encouragement and support of the CIA. Page 9 of 12   SADF and UNITA pushed towards the capital. This intervention was also supported by Mobutu Sese Seko Zaire, who sent Zairean troops to help the FNLA in its drive from the north.  Against these operations, the Cuban government dispatched heavy weapons and troops to Angola to aid the MPLA.  By November the SADF advance was halted and the arrival of up to 4000 Cuban troops by December forced the SADF to pull back and finally withdraw.  The FNLA was defeated and the MPLA took control of most of Angola.  However, UNITA continued to receive South African and US support. It was " able to retain control of a large part of southern Angola, continuing the civil war until 2002.  At important points throughout this period the SADF intervened directly in Angola, launching operations to destroy SWAPO bases or aid UNITA on several occasions. 5. Impact on regional stability By providing military aid and support to each side, foreign governments extended the Angolan civil war and increased the ability of each side to cause casualties. The civil war also drained Angola's resources as each side used the resources under their control - diamonds for UNITA and oil for the MPLA - to finance the war. Regional stability was also affected as refugees fled the fighting and neighbouring countries tried to exploit the war to their own advantage. Congo/Zaire = became a logistical base for the FNLA - Congo vulnerable to attacks aimed at the FNLA - MPLA fought against the Congo I the First Congo War as Mobutu supported UNITA in the Angolan Civil War Namibia - South Africa’s military actions against SWAPO who used southern Angola as bases, leaving Angola vulnerable to attack from South Africa - SADF travelled through Namibia to support UNITA against the MPLA and Cub in Angola which destabilised the region - UNITA engaged in cross-border incursions in order to pillage Namibia for resources, destabilising the villages near the Angola-Namibia border - Namibia saw a refugee crisis as many people from Angola fled to its neighbouring countries Zambia - UNITA carried out cross-border infiltrations to pillage Zambia for resources Page 10 of 12  - 400 000 refugees moved into Zambia from Angola - Benguela railway line which ran through Angola was closed by the 1970s hampering Zambia’s ability to export and import 6. Significance of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale 1987 and 1988 Although in 1978 South Africa had agreed in principle to allow Namibia to become independent, Pretoria was not willing to allow SWAPO to take over the country and at the UN, linked a withdrawal from Namibia to a Cuban withdrawal from Angola.  Angola and Cuba refused to discuss this. Between 1978 and 1984, the SADF launched five major operations into Angola.  While each was militarily successful in the short term. strategically South Africa failed to destroy SWAPO, help UNITA to advance far or prevent a build-up of Cuban and Angolan air power.  In 1987 MPLA and Cuban forces launched an assault on UNITA in southern Angola. South Africa made its largest intervention to prevent the collapse of UNITA. Infantry, tanks and artillery were deployed, destroying the advancing forces in a major battle. The SADF and UNITA forces followed the retreating MPLA/Cuban forces to the town of Cuito Cuanavale on the Cuito River.  In the largest battles fought on the continent since WW2, several attacks were made on these forces -which were heavily repulsed.  Cuba and the ANC would later claim this as a major defeat for the SADF.  While South Africa also claimed victory, they failed to take the town or dislodge Angolan and Cuban forces, becoming bogged down in a stalemate. During this campaign, the number of Cuban forces in Angola doubled and while the SADF concentrated on Cuito Cuanavale, far to the west Cuban forces began to move south towards the Namibian border. South African forces found themselves facing increasing numbers of Soviet- supplied jets, while their own air force was based a long way from the front line, unable to react in time - or replace any lost due to the arms embargo. A Cuban air raid on the Calueque dam killed 12 South African troops, but Cuban forces advancing in the same direction suffered heavy casualties in combat with SA tanks. So:  Cuba found that a large-scale advance would cost many lives.  South Africa could not afford the increasing risk of white national servicemen being killed or scarce equipment lost. Page 11 of 12   Both sides therefore found the risks of an escalating war to be higher than they could stomach. Regardless of individual successes in the field, Cuito Cuanavale and the Cuban advance proved to the SADF that it no longer had military supremacy in the region. 7. The changing nature of international relationships after 1989 At the same time to Cold War was winding down. Both the Soviet Union and the United States called for talks. In 1989 the Angolan combatants, South Africa and Cuba sat to talk.  The results were the South African withdrawal from Namibia, leading to its independence in 1990.  The withdrawal of Cuban forces from Angola and agreement to have elections in Angola to end the civil war.  The end of the Cold War meant the end of Soviet support for Marxist movements in Africa. The MPLA abandoned Marxism and began to follow a more free market economic policy. US support for regimes in Africa also ended.  The Bicesse Peace Accord was signed in 1991 in Portugal - Achieved a ceasefire between groups in Angola - Announced Angolan elections for September 1994 However, the end of foreign intervention did end the Angolan civil war. After the MPLA won elections held in 1992, Jonas Savimbi complained of electoral fraud and the civil war restarted.  The Lusaka Protocol, signed in November 1994 managed to stop the fighting - Peace was not fully restored though Although at a lower level than the 1980s, the fighting continued until Savimbi’s assassination in 2002. Conclusion The formal withdrawal of international support for regions and parties resulted in many countries lacking the economic and military aid that they once had relied on. Up until today, it has been very difficult for these African countries and political parties to fill the aid gap left after the withdrawal of outside support. Page 12 of 12