Bachelor of Arts in English (Utkal University) - CORE_7 PDF

BACHELOR OF ARTS IN ENGLISH SEMESTER-III CORE – 7: BRITISH LITERATURE: EARLY 20TH CENTURY BLOCK: 1 - 4 CREDIT - 06 AUTHOR Priyanka Priyadarshini ...

BACHELOR OF ARTS IN ENGLISH SEMESTER-III CORE – 7: BRITISH LITERATURE: EARLY 20TH CENTURY BLOCK: 1 - 4 CREDIT - 06 AUTHOR Priyanka Priyadarshini  C.D.O.E. Education For All ABOUT THE UNIVERSITY Founded in 1943, Utkal University is the 17th University of the country and the first of Orissa. It is the result of the efforts of Pandit Nilakantha Dash, Maharaja Krushna Chandra Gajapati, Pandit Godavarish Mishra and many others who envisioned a progressive education system for modern Odisha. The University started functioning on 27 November 1943, at Ravenshaw College, Cuttack. It originated as an affiliating and examining body but shifted to its present campus spread over 400 acres of land at Vani Vihar in Bhubaneswar, in 1962. A number of Postgraduate Departments and other centers were established in the University campus. There are presently more than two hundred general affiliated colleges under the University. It has eleven autonomous colleges under its jurisdiction, twenty-eight constituent postgraduate departments, 2 constituent law colleges and a Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education. It boasts of a centre for Population Studies, a School of Women’s Studies, an Academic Staff College, a pre-school and a high school. The University also offers a number of self-financing courses. NAAC accredited in its 3rd cycle with A+ status in 2023. It is a member of the Indian Association of Universities and the Commonwealth Association of Universities.  C.D.O.E. Education For All CENTRE FOR DISTANCE & ONLINE EDUCATION UTKAL UNIVERSITY: VANI VIHAR BHUBANESWAR:-751007 From the Director’s Desk The Centre for Distance and Online Education, originally established as the University Evening College way back in 1962 has travelled a long way in the last 52 years. ‘EDUCATION FOR ALL’ is our motto. Increasingly the Open and Distance Learning institutions are aspiring to provide education for anyone, anytime and anywhere. CDOE, Utkal University has been constantly striving to rise up to the challenges of Open Distance Learning system. Nearly one lakh students have passed through the portals of this great temple of learning. We may not have numerous great tales of outstanding academic achievements but we have great tales of success in life, of recovering lost opportunities, tremendous satisfaction in life, turning points in career and those who feel that without us they would not be where they are today. There are also flashes when our students figure in best ten in their honours subjects. Our students must be free from despair and negative attitude. They must be enthusiastic, full of energy and confident of their future. To meet the needs of quality enhancement and to address the quality concerns of our stake holders over the years, we are switching over to self instructional material printed courseware. We are sure that students would go beyond the course ware provided by us. We are aware that most of you are working and have also family responsibility. Please remember that only a busy person has time for everything and a lazy person has none. We are sure, that you will be able to chalk out a well planned programme to study the courseware. By choosing to pursue a course in distance mode, you have made a commitment for self improvement and acquiring higher educational qualification. You should rise up to your commitment. Every student must go beyond the standard books and self instructional course material. You should read number of books and use ICT learning resources like the internet, television and radio programmes etc. As only limited number of classes will be held, a student should come to the personal contact programme well prepared. The PCP should be used for clarification of doubt and counseling. This can only happen if you read the course material before PCP. You can always mail your feedback on the course ware to us. It is very important that one should discuss the contents of the course materials with other fellow learners. We wish you happy reading DIRECTOR  CORE- 7: BRITISH LITERATURE: EARLY 20TH CENTURY Brief Syllabi Block Block Unit Unit No. Name. No. 1. Late 19th Century 1. HISTORICAL 2. End of 19th Century OVERVIEW 3. Early 20th Century 4. 20th Century Literature Block Block Unit Unit No. Name No. 2 5. T.S Eliot – ‘Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ WAR POETS AND 6. W.B Yeats – ‘Second Coming’ CRITICISM 7. Wilfred Owen – ‘Strange Meeting’& Siegfried Sassoon – ‘Suicide in the Trenches’ 8. Tradition and Individual Talent Block Block Unit Unit No. Name No. 3 9. Virginia Woolf and Her Age VIRGINIA WOOLF 10. Virginia Woolf and Literature 11. Mrs. Dalloway 12. Mrs. Dalloway - Criticisms Block Block Unit Unit No. Name No. 4 13. J M Synge and His Age 14. J M Synge and Literature J M SYNGE 15. Ryders to the Sea 16. Ryders to the Sea - Criticisms  CENTRE FOR DISTANCE AND ONLINE EDUCATION, UTKAL UNIVERSITY,BHUBANESWAR Program Name: Bachelor of Arts in ENGLISH Program Code: 010106 Course Name: British Literature 19TH Century Course Code: C – 7 Semester: III Credit: 6 B l o c k No. 1 to 4 Unit No. 1 to 16 EXPERT COMMITTEE: Dr. K.C Rath Director, C.D.O.E, Utkal University Prof. Jatindra Kumar Nayak, Retd. Prof. in English, Utkal University Prof. Himansu Sekhar Mohapatra Retd. Prof. in Department of English, Utkal University Prof. Asim Ranjan Parhi, Prof. in Department of English, Utkal University Prof. Kalyani Samantaray, Retd. Associate Prof. in the Department of English, Utkal University COURSE WRITER: Priyanka Priyadarshini Faculty in the Department of English, C.D.O.E, Utkal University COURSE EDITOR Dr. Prajna Paramita Panigrahi, Asst. Prof. in Department of English, C.D.O.E, Utkal University MATERIAL PRODUCTION Utkal University Press  CORE- 7: BRITISH LITERATURE: EARLY 20TH CENTURY Content Block/Unit Page No. BLOCK-1: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 1 - 28 UNIT 1: Late 19th Century UNIT 2: End of 19th Century UNIT 3: Early 20th Century UNIT 4: 20th Century Literature BLOCK-2: WAR POETS AND CRITICISM 29 - 66 UNIT 5: T.S Eliot – ‘Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ UNIT 6: W.B Yeats – ‘Second Coming’ UNIT 7: Wilfred Owen – ‘Strange Meeting’& Siegfried Sassoon – ‘Suicide in the Trenches’ UNIT 8: Tradition and Individual Talent BLOCK-3: VIRGINIA WOOLF 67 - 97 UNIT 9: Virginia Woolf and Her Age UNIT 10: Virginia Woolf and Literature UNIT 11: Mrs. Dalloway UNIT 12: Mrs. Dalloway - Criticisms BLOCK-4: J M SYNGE 98 - 125 UNIT 13: J M Synge and His Age UNIT 14: J M Synge and Literature UNIT 15: Ryders to the Sea UNIT 16: Ryders to the Sea - Criticisms BLOCK-1: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW UNIT 1: Late 19th Century UNIT 2: End of 19th Century UNIT 3: Early 20th Century UNIT 4: 20th Century Literature 1  UNIT 1: LATE 19TH CENTURY STRUCTURE 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Politics and Wars 1.4 Science and Technology 1.5 Culture and Arts 1.6 Economy and Society 1.7 Summary 1.8 Key Terms 1.9 Review Questions 1.10 References 1.1 Objectives Learning about the late 19th century encompasses several key objectives that provide a comprehensive understanding of this pivotal period in history: 1. Understanding Industrialization: Explore how industrialization transformed economies, societies, and daily life, leading to urbanization, the rise of factories, and changes in labor practices. 2. Exploring Imperialism: Investigate the causes, processes, and consequences of European imperialism, including the scramble for Africa and Asia, and its impact on global politics and societies. 1.2 Introduction The late 19th century, which roughly spans from the 1880s to the 1890s, was a transformative period in world history. During this time, the Industrial Revolution was in full swing, with the Second Industrial Revolution leading to massive urbanization and significant increases in productivity, profit, and prosperity. In the Middle East, the Islamic gunpowder empires were in decline, while European imperialism brought much of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Africa under colonial rule. The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 had a lasting impact on the global landscape. The late 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. Association football, rugby union, baseball, and other sports gained popularity during this time. In terms of migration, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States. The British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports, such as cricket, to many parts of the world. 2 Women's fashion was a sensitive topic during this time, with women showing their ankles being viewed as scandalous. The late 19th century was also marked by the expansion of the British Empire, with Britain controlling a fifth of the world's land and a quarter of the world's population by the end of the century. Some notable figures from the late 19th century include Adella Hunt Logan, Nellie Peters Black, James Blount, and Asa Candler, among others. 1.3 Politics and Wars Politics and wars during the late 19th century were characterized by significant geopolitical developments and conflicts that shaped the era: 1. European Imperialism: The late 19th century saw European powers aggressively expanding their empires through colonization in Africa and Asia. This period, known as the "Scramble for Africa," involved competition among European nations to claim territories and resources. 2. Rise of Nation-States: Nationalism surged during this time, leading to the unification of Germany under Otto von Bismarck in 1871 and Italy under Victor Emmanuel II. These consolidations reshaped the political map of Europe and heightened tensions among rival powers. 3. Diplomatic Alliances: European nations formed alliances to strengthen their geopolitical positions. The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and later Britain) were key alliances that would play significant roles in the lead-up to World War I. 4. Colonial Conflicts: Imperial powers often clashed over colonial territories. Examples include the Fashoda Incident (1898) between Britain and France in Sudan, and the First and Second Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839-1842, 1878-1880) fought by Britain in Afghanistan. 5. Regional Conflicts: The late 19th century also witnessed several regional conflicts. The Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) resulted in the independence of several Balkan states from Ottoman control. The Greco-Turkish War (1897) saw Greece unsuccessfully attempting to expand its territory into Ottoman-held areas. 6. Pacific and East Asian Conflicts: In the Pacific and East Asia, conflicts such as the First Sino- Japanese War (1894-1895) between China and Japan, and the Spanish-American War (1898) which involved Spain, the United States, and Cuba, demonstrated shifting global power dynamics. 7. Internal Unrest: Within nations, social and political unrest often erupted into conflict. Examples include the Paris Commune (1871) in France, where radical workers briefly seized power, and the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) in China, a nationalist uprising against foreign influence. Overall, the late 19th century was a period of intense geopolitical competition, imperial expansion, and shifting alliances that set the stage for the turbulent 20th century and the outbreak of World War I. 3  1.4 Science and Technology The late 19th century was a time of remarkable progress and innovation in science and technology, laying crucial groundwork for the modern world. Several key advancements emerged during this period: 1. Electricity and Electromagnetism: The late 19th century saw the harnessing of electricity for practical use. Thomas Edison's development of the electric light bulb in 1879 revolutionized indoor lighting, while Nikola Tesla's work on alternating current (AC) systems enabled the efficient transmission of electricity over long distances. 2. Telecommunications: The invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 transformed communication, allowing voices to be transmitted over long distances. This innovation greatly improved business and personal communication networks. 3. Transportation: The late 19th century saw significant advancements in transportation technology. The development of the internal combustion engine in the 1880s paved the way for automobiles, which eventually revolutionized personal mobility. Meanwhile, the expansion of railways accelerated industrial growth and facilitated mass transportation of goods and people. 4. Medicine and Public Health: The late 19th century witnessed breakthroughs in medicine and public health. Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease (1860s) revolutionized understanding of infections and led to improvements in sanitation and hygiene practices, reducing the spread of diseases. 5. Chemistry and Materials Science: Advances in chemistry during this period included the development of synthetic dyes by William Perkin in 1856, which spurred the growth of the chemical industry. Additionally, improvements in metallurgy and the production of steel contributed to industrial growth and infrastructure development. 6. Physics and Engineering: In physics, discoveries such as James Clerk Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism (1860s) provided a theoretical foundation for the development of technologies like radio waves, which were crucial for later innovations in telecommunications. 7. Astronomy and Space Exploration: The late 19th century saw advancements in astronomy, such as the discovery of new celestial objects and the development of telescopes. These advancements laid the groundwork for later developments in space exploration during the 20th century. Overall, the late 19th century was a period of rapid technological advancement and scientific discovery that significantly transformed daily life, industry, and communication, setting the stage for further innovations in the 20th century. 1.5 Culture and Arts The late 19th century was a dynamic period in the realm of culture and arts, marked by a diverse array of movements and developments that reflected the societal changes and intellectual currents of the time: 4  1. Realism and Naturalism: Literary movements like realism and naturalism gained prominence during this period. Writers such as Gustave Flaubert, Leo Tolstoy, and Émile Zola sought to depict everyday life with accuracy and detail, often exploring social issues and human psychology in depth. 2. Symbolism and Decadence: In reaction to realism, movements like symbolism emerged, emphasizing symbolism and the exploration of dreams, myths, and the subconscious. Writers such as Charles Baudelaire and Arthur Rimbaud, and artists like Gustav Klimt and Edvard Munch, embraced themes of decadence and the mystical. 3. Impressionism and Post-Impressionism: In the visual arts, impressionism, with artists like Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, sought to capture fleeting moments and impressions of light and color in everyday scenes. Post-impressionists like Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cézanne pushed further, experimenting with form and color to express emotions and subjective experiences. 4. Arts and Crafts Movement: Reacting against industrialization and mass production, the Arts and Crafts Movement emerged, advocating for craftsmanship, traditional techniques, and the integration of art into everyday life. Figures like William Morris and Gustav Stickley promoted handmade goods and simple, functional designs. 5. Music and Opera: The late 19th century witnessed innovations in music and opera. Composers like Richard Wagner expanded the boundaries of opera with their epic works and new musical techniques. Meanwhile, Johannes Brahms and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky continued to develop symphonic and orchestral compositions. 6. Theater and Performance: Theatrical movements evolved during this period, with realism influencing playwrights like Henrik Ibsen and Anton Chekhov, who explored complex psychological and social themes. Experimental theater also gained traction, with figures like George Bernard Shaw challenging conventional norms. 7. New Media and Entertainment: The late 19th century saw the emergence of new forms of entertainment and media, such as photography and early motion pictures. These technologies transformed visual culture and provided new ways of experiencing and documenting the world. Overall, the late 19th century was a period of artistic experimentation, cultural dynamism, and intellectual ferment, where artists and thinkers sought to capture the complexities of a rapidly changing world and challenge established norms in pursuit of new forms of expression. 1.6 Economy and Society The late 19th century was a transformative period for economy and society, characterized by profound changes driven by industrialization, urbanization, and globalization. Key aspects include: 1. Industrialization: Industrial growth accelerated, particularly in Western Europe and the United States, leading to the mechanization of production processes. Factories emerged as centers of economic activity, employing a large and often exploited workforce, including women and children. 2. Urbanization: Industrialization fueled rapid urbanization as people migrated from rural areas to cities in search of work. Urban centers expanded quickly, leading to overcrowded and often unsanitary living conditions in newly developed industrial cities. 5  3. Technological Advancements: Advances in technology, such as the steam engine, electricity, and the telegraph, revolutionized manufacturing processes, transportation, and communication. This facilitated the expansion of markets and increased efficiency in production and distribution networks. 4. Global Trade and Imperialism: The late 19th century saw the intensification of global trade and imperialism. European powers expanded their empires in Africa and Asia, exploiting resources and establishing colonial administrations. This led to economic dominance and competition for markets and resources among imperial nations. 5. Labor and Social Movements: The growth of industrial capitalism sparked labor movements advocating for better working conditions, higher wages, and shorter hours. Trade unions and socialist movements gained traction, organizing strikes and protests to demand reforms and workers' rights. 6. Social Stratification and Inequality: Industrialization widened the gap between social classes. The wealthy elite accumulated vast fortunes through industrial enterprises, while the working class faced poverty, exploitation, and limited social mobility. 7. Women's Changing Roles: The late 19th century witnessed evolving roles for women. Industrialization created new opportunities for women in factories and offices, challenging traditional gender roles. Women's suffrage movements gained momentum, advocating for political rights and equality. 8. Cultural and Intellectual Developments: The era saw the rise of new ideas and philosophies, including liberalism, socialism, and Darwinism. Intellectuals and reformers debated the role of government in regulating economies and addressing social inequalities. Overall, the late 19th century was a period of rapid economic and social change, characterized by industrial expansion, urban growth, global interconnectedness, and the emergence of modern societal structures that continue to shape our world today. 1.7 Summary The late 19th century was a transformative era characterized by profound shifts in society, technology, and global geopolitics. Industrialization burgeoned, driving urbanization as populations surged into cities seeking factory work. This period also witnessed the zenith of European imperialism, with nations expanding their empires across Africa and Asia. Scientific advancements, like electricity and the telephone, revolutionized communication and daily life, while social reform movements fought for workers' rights and women's suffrage amid growing urban poverty. Culturally, realism and naturalism emerged in literature and arts, reflecting a changing worldview. Politically, democratic ideals gained momentum, though nationalist tensions contributed to conflicts such as the Franco-Prussian War. The late 19th century laid the groundwork for the modern age, shaping the course of global history in lasting ways. 1.8 Key Terms Industrialization: The process by which economies shifted from agrarian and handmade production to industrial manufacturing, powered by advances in machinery and technology. 6  Imperialism: The policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military conquest, or economic domination over other territories and peoples. Urbanization: The rapid growth of cities and towns due to rural-to-urban migration driven by industrialization and economic opportunities in urban centers. 1.9 Review Questions 1. How did industrialization impact urbanization during the late 19th century? 2. What were the major industries that drove economic growth in this period? 3. How did industrialization contribute to social changes and the rise of urban poverty? 4. What were the motivations behind European imperialism in Africa and Asia during the late 19th century? 5. How did imperialism impact the cultures and economies of colonized regions? 1.10 References Aldrich, Robert (1996). Greater France. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-24729-5. ISBN 978-0-333- 56740-1. Bartlett, C. J. (1996). Peace, War and the European Powers, 1814–1914. London: Macmillan Education UK. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-24958-9. ISBN 978-0-333-62001-4. Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914, 2nd Ed. (2005) Gooch, G. P. (1923). "History of Modern Europe, 1878-1919". Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs. 2 (6): 266. doi:10.2307/3014586. JSTOR 3014586. Herring, George C. Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921 (2017) Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000 (1987), stress on economic and military factors Langer, William. European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890 (1950); advanced history online Langer, William. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902 (1950); advanced history online Mowat, R. B. A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914 (1922) online free Osterhammel, Jürgen (2014). The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century (PDF). doi:10.1515/9781400849949. ISBN 9781400849949. Porter, Andrew, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century (2001) Sontag, Raymond. European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932 (1933), basic summary; 425 pp online Taylor, A. J. P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy; online free Taylor, A. J. P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962): 542–66. online Wesseling, H. L. (2015). The European Colonial 7 Empires. doi:10.4324/9781315844503. ISBN 9781315844503. 8  UNIT 2: END OF 19TH CENTURY STRUCTURE 2.1 Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Industrialization and Urbanization 2.4 Imperialism and Colonialism 2.5 Colonial Administration 2.6 Legacy of Imperialism 2.7 Summary 2.8 Key Terms 2.9 Review Questions 2.10 References 2.1 Objectives Learning about the end of the 19th century, or the late 19th century, involves several key objectives that help in understanding this crucial period of history: 1. Industrialization and Urbanization: Understanding how industrialization intensified during this period, leading to rapid urbanization and significant social and economic changes. 2. Imperialism and Colonialism: Exploring the expansion of European powers into Africa, Asia, and other regions, and examining the motivations, impacts, and consequences of imperialism. 3. Technological Advancements: Studying major technological innovations of the time, such as the telegraph, telephone, electric light bulb, and advances in transportation, and their impact on society, communication, and daily life. 2.2 Introduction The end of the 19th century was a period of profound transition and transformation across the globe. Industrialization continued to accelerate, reshaping economies and societies as urban centers expanded rapidly. European powers intensified their imperial ambitions, leading to the colonization of vast territories in Africa and Asia, while nationalist movements gained momentum in various regions seeking independence from colonial rule. Scientific and technological innovations, such as electricity, the telephone, and advancements in transportation, revolutionized daily life and communication on a global scale. Socially, the period witnessed significant movements for labor rights, women's suffrage, and civil rights, challenging established norms and advocating for greater equality. Culturally, realism in literature and the arts reflected a growing desire for authenticity and social critique. Politically, the balance of power shifted with the rise of new nation-states and alliances, setting the stage for the geopolitical tensions that would characterize the 20th century. The end of the 19th century thus marked a pivotal moment in history, setting in motion the forces that would shape the modern world. 9  2.3 Industrialization and Urbanization At the end of the 19th century, industrialization and urbanization had reached significant milestones, profoundly shaping societies across the globe: 1. Industrialization: o Technological Advances: Industrialization was in full swing, characterized by the Second Industrial Revolution. Innovations such as the Bessemer process for steel production, electric power generation and distribution, and the internal combustion engine transformed manufacturing processes and productivity. o Expansion of Industries: Industries expanded beyond textiles and iron to include chemicals, steel, machinery, and electrical equipment. Mass production techniques and assembly lines began to emerge, particularly in sectors like automotive manufacturing. o Global Impact: Industrialization was not limited to Europe and North America but spread to other regions like Japan and parts of Latin America, contributing to global economic interdependence and competition. 2. Urbanization: o Rapid Growth of Cities: Urbanization accelerated as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of employment opportunities in factories and service industries. o Infrastructure Development: Cities expanded rapidly, leading to the construction of housing, transportation networks (such as railways and streetcars), sanitation systems, and public services to accommodate growing populations. o Social Impact: Urbanization brought significant social changes, including the formation of diverse communities, the rise of urban poverty and slums, and the emergence of social issues related to housing, sanitation, and public health. 3. Labor and Social Conditions: o Labor Exploitation: Industrialization often led to harsh working conditions, long hours, low wages, and unsafe workplaces. Labor movements and trade unions emerged to advocate for better wages, working hours, and improved working conditions. o Social Stratification: Industrialization contributed to the widening gap between the wealthy industrialists and the working class. Social reform movements sought to address issues such as child labor, women's rights, and urban poverty. 4. Technological Impact: o Technological Innovations: Technological advancements in transportation (such as steamships and railways) facilitated the movement of goods and people over long distances, connecting remote regions with urban centers. o Communication: The invention of the telegraph and telephone revolutionized communication, facilitating faster and more efficient exchange of information across continents. 5. Environmental Impact: o Urban Pollution: Industrialization and urbanization led to increased pollution levels in cities, including air and water pollution from factories and sewage. o Resource Depletion: The demand for resources such as coal, iron, and timber led to their depletion in certain regions, prompting concerns about sustainability and conservation. 10 Overall, by the end of the 19th century, industrialization and urbanization had fundamentally transformed societies, economies, and environments worldwide. The era marked a pivotal shift towards modernity, setting the stage for further technological advancements and social changes in the 20th century. 2.4 Imperialism and Colonialism At the end of the 19th century, imperialism and colonialism had reached their peak, profoundly influencing global politics, economies, and societies: 1. Expansion of Empires: European powers, particularly Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium, had expanded their colonial empires across Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. This period is often referred to as the "Scramble for Africa" as European nations rushed to claim territories and resources. 2. Motivations for Imperialism: o Economic Gain: Imperial powers sought to exploit the natural resources and raw materials of colonized territories to fuel industrialization and economic growth back home. o Strategic Interests: Control of strategic trade routes, ports, and territories allowed imperial nations to secure their global influence and military superiority. o National Prestige: Imperialism was also driven by nationalist sentiments and the desire for prestige, with nations competing to establish colonial dominance as a mark of national power and greatness. 3. Colonial Administration: o Direct and Indirect Rule: European powers implemented various forms of colonial administration. Some regions were governed directly through colonial officials, while others were ruled indirectly through local leaders who collaborated with colonial authorities. o Cultural and Social Impact: Colonial policies often disrupted traditional societies and cultures, imposing European languages, laws, and customs. Missionary activities also influenced local religious beliefs and practices. 4. Resistance and Conflict: o Local Resistance Movements: Indigenous populations often resisted colonial rule through armed uprisings, protests, and cultural movements aimed at preserving autonomy and traditional ways of life. o Wars and Conflicts: Imperial powers faced significant resistance in some regions, leading to conflicts such as the Boer Wars in South Africa, the Mahdist War in Sudan, and the Boxer Rebellion in China. 5. Legacy of Imperialism: o Economic Exploitation: Colonialism resulted in the extraction of resources and labor from colonized territories, contributing to economic disparities and underdevelopment in many regions. o Political Instability: The arbitrary drawing of colonial borders and the imposition of artificial divisions often led to political instability and ethnic tensions that persist to this day. 11  o Global Influence: Imperialism shaped global geopolitics, contributing to the rise of nationalism, the formation of alliances, and the geopolitical rivalries that would eventually culminate in World War I. Overall, at the end of the 19th century, imperialism and colonialism had reshaped the world map and laid the foundation for enduring geopolitical and socioeconomic dynamics that continue to influence global affairs in the modern era. 2.5 Colonial Administration At the end of the 19th century, colonial administration varied across different imperial powers and regions, reflecting a mix of direct and indirect rule strategies: 1. Direct Rule: o Characteristics: Direct rule involved the establishment of formal colonial administrations by European powers in their colonies. Colonial officials and bureaucrats from the imperial country were appointed to govern the territory. o Examples: France practiced direct rule in many of its African colonies, where French administrators implemented French laws and institutions, often replacing local governance structures entirely. 2. Indirect Rule: o Characteristics: Indirect rule was a strategy where European powers governed through local traditional leaders or elites who were allowed to retain some authority and autonomy under colonial oversight. o Examples: British indirect rule was employed in territories like Nigeria and India, where colonial administrators worked closely with local rulers or chiefs to govern and collect taxes. 3. Mixed or Hybrid Systems: o Characteristics: In some cases, colonial administrations adopted hybrid approaches combining elements of both direct and indirect rule. This allowed for flexibility based on local conditions and political considerations. o Examples: In parts of British East Africa (now Kenya and Uganda), a dual mandate system was implemented where some areas were under direct British administration while others were indirectly ruled through local chiefs. 4. Administration and Governance: o Legal Systems: Colonial administrations often imposed European legal systems and institutions, replacing or modifying existing customary laws and justice systems. o Education and Language: European languages such as French, English, and Portuguese were promoted in education and administration, often at the expense of indigenous languages and cultures. o Economic Exploitation: Colonial administrations facilitated economic exploitation of resources and labor, establishing plantation economies and extractive industries. 5. Impact on Local Societies: o Social and Cultural Changes: Colonial rule brought significant social and cultural changes, including the spread of Christianity through missionary activities and the introduction of Western education systems. 12  o Resistance and Collaboration: Local responses to colonial rule varied, ranging from collaboration with colonial authorities for political and economic benefits to active resistance through rebellions and nationalist movements. 2.6 Legacy of Imperialism 1. o Economic Exploitation: Colonialism resulted in the extraction of resources and labor from colonized territories, contributing to economic disparities and underdevelopment in many regions. o Political Instability: The arbitrary drawing of colonial borders and the imposition of artificial divisions often led to political instability and ethnic tensions that persist to this day. o Global Influence: Imperialism shaped global geopolitics, contributing to the rise of nationalism, the formation of alliances, and the geopolitical rivalries that would eventually culminate in World War I. Overall, at the end of the 19th century, imperialism and colonialism had reshaped the world map and laid the foundation for enduring geopolitical and socioeconomic dynamics that continue to influence global affairs in the modern era. 2.7 Summary The end of the 19th century was characterized by profound global changes across political, economic, and cultural spheres. Industrialization surged forward with the Second Industrial Revolution, introducing transformative technologies like electricity and the internal combustion engine. This period witnessed the zenith of European imperialism, with nations aggressively expanding their empires across Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, often through direct and indirect rule systems that reshaped local societies and economies. Socially, urbanization accelerated as populations flocked to cities seeking industrial jobs, leading to overcrowding and social inequalities. Movements for labor rights and women's suffrage gained momentum amidst growing industrial unrest. Scientific advancements and intellectual movements challenged established norms, while geopolitical tensions simmered, setting the stage for the conflicts and alliances that would define the 20th century. The end of the 19th century thus marked a pivotal moment in history, laying the groundwork for the modern era with its complex interplay of progress, exploitation, and social change. 2.8 Key Terms Industrialization: The rapid growth of industry and mechanized manufacturing processes, transforming economies and societies worldwide. Imperialism: The policy of extending a nation's authority over other countries or territories through colonization, military conquest, or economic domination. 13  Urbanization: The process of population migration from rural areas to urban centers, leading to the growth and expansion of cities. Second Industrial Revolution: The phase of industrialization characterized by technological advancements in steel production, electricity, and the internal combustion engine. Colonialism: The establishment, maintenance, and exploitation of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. 2.9 Review Questions 1. How did industrialization contribute to urbanization during the late 19th century? 2. What were the social and environmental impacts of rapid urbanization at this time? 3. In what ways did technological advancements (such as electricity and the internal combustion engine) revolutionize industries and urban life? 4. What were the motivations behind European imperialism in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific at the end of the 19th century? 5. How did colonial administrations differ between European powers in terms of governance and economic policies? 2.10 References Anderson, M. S. The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914 (3rd ed. 2003) Blanning, T. C. W. ed. The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914 (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp Bruun, Geoffrey. Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 (1938) online. Cameron, Rondo. France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history. Evans, Richard J. The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914 (2016), 934 pp Gildea, Robert. Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914 (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp, online 2nd ed, 1996 14  UNIT 3: EARLY 20TH CENTURY STRUCTURE 3.1 Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Politics and Wars 3.4 Science and Technology 3.5 Culture and Arts 3.6 Economy and Society 3.7 Summary 3.8 Key Terms 3.9 Review Questions 3.10 References 3.1 Objectives Studying the early 20th century offers insights into pivotal developments that shaped the modern world across various domains. Here are some key objectives of learning about the early 20th century: 1. Understanding Historical Context: o Explore the political, economic, and social transformations that followed the turn of the century, including the aftermath of World War I, the Russian Revolution, and the Great Depression. o Examine the rise of nationalism, imperialism, and colonialism, which had profound impacts on global power dynamics and international relations. 3.2 Introduction. The early 20th century stands as a transformative period marked by profound global shifts in politics, society, culture, and technology. Spanning roughly from the late 19th century to the end of World War II in 1945, this era witnessed unprecedented changes that continue to resonate in contemporary times. From the devastation of World War I and its aftermath to the rise of new ideologies, scientific advancements, and cultural movements, the early 20th century laid the foundation for the modern world as we know it today. At the outset of this period, industrialization had already reshaped economies and societies, leading to rapid urbanization and the emergence of new social classes. Technological innovations such as the automobile, telecommunication systems, and electricity revolutionized daily life, connecting distant regions and transforming communication and transportation networks. Politically, the early 20th century was marked by significant upheavals and conflicts. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 triggered World War I, a devastating global conflict that 15 reshaped political alliances and redrew national boundaries. The war's aftermath saw the collapse of empires, including the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, German, and Russian Empires, and the emergence of new nation-states. Ideologically, the early 20th century witnessed the rise of new political movements and philosophies. Communism took hold in Russia with the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, while fascism emerged in Italy under Benito Mussolini and later in Germany with Adolf Hitler's National Socialism. These ideologies would profoundly influence the course of history in subsequent decades, leading to totalitarian regimes and further global conflicts. Culturally and intellectually, the early 20th century was a period of experimentation and innovation. Modernist movements in literature, art, and music rejected traditional norms and explored new forms of expression and representation. Intellectual developments in fields such as psychology, sociology, and physics challenged established beliefs and laid the groundwork for new scientific paradigms. In summary, the early 20th century was a time of rapid and tumultuous change, characterized by global upheavals, technological advancements, ideological conflicts, and cultural transformations. The legacies of this period continue to shape contemporary societies and global relations, underscoring its enduring significance in the trajectory of human history. 3.3 Politics and Wars The early 20th century was a tumultuous period politically, marked by significant conflicts and transformative geopolitical shifts that shaped the course of global history: 1. World War I (1914-1918): o Causes: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in 1914 triggered a chain of events leading to the outbreak of war. Complex alliances and imperial ambitions exacerbated tensions in Europe. o Global Conflict: Known as the Great War, it involved major powers including Britain, France, Russia, Germany, and eventually the United States. It was characterized by trench warfare, new military technologies, and widespread destruction. o Consequences: The war resulted in millions of casualties, the collapse of empires (Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian, and German), and the redrawing of national borders with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. 2. Russian Revolution (1917): o Background: A series of revolutions in Russia in 1917 culminated in the overthrow of the Romanov monarchy and the establishment of a Bolshevik government under Vladimir Lenin. o Impact: The Bolsheviks' rise to power led to the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1922, marking the world's first socialist state and significantly influencing global politics and ideological rivalries. 3. Interwar Period and Rise of Totalitarianism: o Political Instability: The aftermath of World War I saw economic turmoil, social unrest, and political instability across Europe and other parts of the world. 16  oRise of Fascism: Italy's Benito Mussolini and Germany's Adolf Hitler rose to power in the 1920s and 1930s with fascist ideologies emphasizing nationalism, authoritarianism, and militarism. o Totalitarian Regimes: Totalitarian regimes emerged in Italy, Germany, and later in Spain under Francisco Franco, imposing strict controls over society and suppressing dissent. 4. Lead-up to World War II: o Expansionism: Fascist regimes pursued expansionist policies, leading to territorial ambitions and conflicts such as Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 and Japan's aggression in Asia. o Appeasement and Aggression: Western powers initially adopted policies of appeasement towards aggressive actions by fascist states, culminating in the outbreak of World War II in 1939 with Germany's invasion of Poland. 5. Legacy and Global Impact: o Redefined Geopolitics: The early 20th century redefined global power dynamics, laying the groundwork for the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies after World War II. o Humanitarian Impact: Both World War I and World War II had profound humanitarian consequences, including mass displacement, genocide, and the Holocaust, reshaping global attitudes towards human rights and international cooperation. In summary, politics and wars in the early 20th century were characterized by major conflicts, ideological struggles, and the reshaping of global alliances and power structures. These events set the stage for the modern geopolitical landscape and continue to influence international relations and security policies to this day. 3.4 Science and Technology The early 20th century was a period of remarkable advancements and transformative developments in science and technology that reshaped societies and laid the foundation for modern innovations. Here are key highlights: 1. Physics and Quantum Mechanics: o Theory of Relativity: Albert Einstein's theories of special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915) revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and gravity. o Quantum Mechanics: Pioneered by Max Planck, Niels Bohr, and others, quantum theory introduced the concept of discrete energy levels and probabilistic nature of particles, challenging classical physics. 2. Electrical Engineering and Electronics: o Radio and Telecommunications: Guglielmo Marconi's development of wireless telegraphy enabled long-distance communication, leading to the growth of radio broadcasting and global connectivity. o Vacuum Tubes: Invention of the vacuum tube (thermionic valve) by Lee De Forest and others laid the groundwork for electronic amplification and paved the way for the development of radios and early computers. 17  3. Transportation and Aviation: o Automobiles: Mass production techniques pioneered by Henry Ford and advancements in internal combustion engines made automobiles accessible to the general public, transforming transportation and urban development. o Aviation: The Wright brothers' first successful flight in 1903 marked the beginning of rapid advancements in aviation technology, leading to commercial air travel and military aviation during World War I. 4. Medical and Biological Sciences: o Antibiotics: Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin in 1928 revolutionized medicine by introducing the first antibiotic, saving millions of lives and transforming treatments for infectious diseases. o Genetics: Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance gained broader recognition, leading to advancements in understanding genetics and hereditary traits, paving the way for future breakthroughs in molecular biology. 5. Chemistry and Materials Science: o Synthetic Materials: The development of synthetic materials like plastics (Bakelite) by Leo Baekeland in 1907 and nylon by Wallace Carothers in 1935 revolutionized industry and consumer products. o Nuclear Chemistry: Marie Curie's research on radioactivity and the discovery of radium and polonium expanded knowledge of atomic structure, laying the foundation for nuclear physics and energy. 6. Mathematics and Computing: o Computational Theory: Alan Turing's concept of the Turing machine (1936) laid theoretical groundwork for modern computing and artificial intelligence. o Mathematical Advances: Developments in mathematics, including the emergence of set theory and foundational work in probability and statistics, supported advancements in various scientific disciplines. 7. Impact on Society: o The rapid pace of scientific and technological advancements in the early 20th century transformed everyday life, industry, and global communication networks. o These innovations fueled economic growth, influenced cultural attitudes, and fundamentally altered human capabilities and aspirations. In conclusion, the early 20th century was a period of unprecedented scientific and technological progress that set the stage for the modern era. These advancements not only enhanced our understanding of the physical world but also transformed how we live, communicate, and interact with each other on a global scale. 3.5 Culture and Arts The early 20th century was a period of dynamic cultural and artistic innovation, characterized by diverse movements and avant-garde expressions that responded to the rapidly changing social, political, and technological landscapes. Here are key aspects of culture and arts during this transformative era: 1. Modernism in Literature and Poetry: 18  o Stream-of-Consciousness: Writers like Virginia Woolf and James Joyce experimented with narrative techniques that explored the inner thoughts and perceptions of characters. o Fragmentation and Experimentation: Authors such as Franz Kafka challenged traditional storytelling with surreal and existential themes in works like "The Trial" and "The Metamorphosis." o Literary Magazines and Journals: Publications like "The Little Review" and "The Dial" served as platforms for modernist writers to showcase their experimental works. 2. Visual Arts and Avant-Garde Movements: o Cubism: Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque pioneered this movement, which emphasized fragmented forms and multiple perspectives. o Expressionism: Artists like Edvard Munch and Wassily Kandinsky explored subjective emotions and psychological states through vivid colors and distorted forms. o Dadaism: Originating in Zurich, Dadaists like Marcel Duchamp and Hans Arp challenged conventions with nonsensical art, rejecting traditional aesthetics and embracing absurdity. o Surrealism: Artists such as Salvador Dalí and René Magritte explored dream-like imagery and the unconscious mind, influenced by Freudian psychology. 3. Music and Performing Arts: o Modernist Music: Composers like Igor Stravinsky and Arnold Schoenberg pushed boundaries with dissonance, polyrhythms, and unconventional structures in works like "The Rite of Spring" and "Pierrot Lunaire." o Jazz Age: The Roaring Twenties saw the rise of jazz music, characterized by improvisation, syncopation, and African American influences, popularized by musicians like Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington. o Ballet and Dance: Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes revolutionized ballet with collaborations involving artists like Pablo Picasso and composers like Igor Stravinsky, showcasing avant-garde choreography and design. 4. Film and Cinema: o Silent Films: Directors such as Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton created iconic silent comedies that entertained audiences globally. o Expressionist Cinema: German filmmakers like Fritz Lang and F.W. Murnau utilized dramatic lighting, stylized sets, and psychological themes in films like "Metropolis" and "Nosferatu." o Surrealist Cinema: Experimental filmmakers like Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí collaborated on films like "Un Chien Andalou," exploring dream-like narratives and irrational imagery. 5. Social and Cultural Movements: o Harlem Renaissance: African American writers, musicians, and artists celebrated cultural identity and challenged racial stereotypes, contributing to the flourishing of jazz, literature (e.g., Langston Hughes), and visual arts (e.g., Aaron Douglas). o Feminism and Gender Identity: Suffragette movements and discussions on gender roles influenced literature, visual arts, and theater, fostering debates on women's rights and societal expectations. 3.6 Economy and Society 19 During the early 20th century, global economy and society experienced significant transformations influenced by industrialization, urbanization, and geopolitical changes. Here are key aspects of the economy and society during this period: 1. Industrialization and Urbanization: o Mass Production: Advances in technology and manufacturing processes, such as assembly lines (popularized by Henry Ford), led to increased productivity and the mass production of consumer goods. o Urban Growth: Industrialization drew people from rural areas to cities in search of employment, leading to rapid urbanization and the growth of urban populations. Cities became centers of industry, commerce, and cultural exchange. 2. Labor and Working Conditions: o Labor Movements: Workers organized into unions to advocate for better wages, working conditions, and labor rights. Strikes and labor disputes, such as the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in 1911, highlighted unsafe working conditions and spurred reforms. o Social Reforms: Progressive movements pushed for reforms in labor laws, child labor regulations, and workplace safety standards to improve the lives of workers. 3. Global Trade and Imperialism: o Imperialism: European powers and the United States expanded their empires through colonialism and economic dominance, exploiting resources and markets in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. o Global Trade Networks: Advances in transportation, such as steamships and railroads, facilitated global trade and interconnected economies, leading to the growth of international commerce and economic interdependence. 4. Economic Crises and Fluctuations: o Great Depression: The stock market crash of 1929 triggered a global economic downturn, leading to widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest. Governments implemented various policies, such as the New Deal in the United States, to stimulate recovery and provide relief. o Inflation and Deflation: Economic instability, including periods of inflation and deflation, affected consumer prices, wages, and investment markets, contributing to economic uncertainty. 5. Social Changes and Movements: o Women's Rights: The early 20th century saw the rise of women's suffrage movements, advocating for women's right to vote and equal participation in society and politics. o Civil Rights: Movements for civil rights and racial equality gained momentum, challenging segregation and discrimination based on race, ethnicity, and nationality. 6. Technological Advancements: o Electrification: The widespread adoption of electricity in homes, factories, and transportation systems revolutionized daily life and industrial production. o Communication: Advances in telecommunications, such as the telephone and radio, improved long-distance communication and facilitated the spread of information and culture. 7. Cultural Shifts and Consumerism: o Consumer Culture: Increased industrial production and rising incomes led to the growth of consumerism and the development of mass markets for goods and services. 20  o Cultural Movements: Modernist movements in literature, art, and music reflected changing societal values and cultural attitudes, challenging traditional norms and embracing innovation and experimentation. 3.7 Summary In summary, culture and arts during the early 20th century were characterized by innovation, experimentation, and a rejection of traditional norms. Artists and intellectuals sought to capture the complexities of a rapidly changing world, reflecting diverse perspectives and pushing the boundaries of creative expression across various mediums. These movements continue to influence contemporary arts and cultural discourse, leaving a lasting legacy on global artistic practices and societal attitudes. In conclusion, the early 20th century was a period of unprecedented scientific and technological progress that set the stage for the modern era. These advancements not only enhanced our understanding of the physical world but also transformed how we live, communicate, and interact with each other on a global scale. 3.8 Key Terms World War I: The global conflict from 1914 to 1918 involving major powers in Europe, Asia, and beyond, resulting in significant loss of life and the redrawing of national boundaries. Great Depression: The severe worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 after the stock market crash in the United States, leading to high unemployment, poverty, and social unrest. Russian Revolution: The series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, including the February Revolution and the October Revolution, which led to the overthrow of the Tsarist regime and the establishment of the Soviet Union. 3.9 Review Questions 1. How did World War I reshape global politics and alliances during the early 20th century? 2. What were the main causes and consequences of the Russian Revolution of 1917? 3. How did the Treaty of Versailles contribute to the political instability of the interwar period? 4. How did advancements in transportation, such as automobiles and airplanes, impact society and culture during the early 20th century? 5. What role did radio and telecommunications play in shaping global communication networks during this period? 3.10 References Brower, Daniel R. and Thomas Sanders. The World in the Twentieth Century (7th Ed, 2013) CBS News. People of the century. Simon and Schuster, 1999. ISBN 0-684-87093-2 Grenville, J. A. S. A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1994). online free Hallock, Stephanie A. The World in the 20th Century: A Thematic Approach (2012) 21  Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online 22  UNIT 4: 20TH CENTURY LITERATURE STRUCTURE 4.1 Objectives 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Modernism (1900s-1930s) 4.4 Post-World War I Literature (1920s-1930s) 4.5 Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s) 4.6 Post-World War II Literature (1940s-1950s) 4.7 Summary 4.8 Key Terms 4.9 Review Questions 4.10 References 4.1 Objectives Analyzing Cultural and Intellectual Movements: Investigate the diversity of artistic and literary movements, such as modernism, surrealism, and the Harlem Renaissance, which emerged as responses to societal upheavals and cultural shifts. Study the evolution of intellectual thought, including existentialism, psychoanalysis, and new philosophies that challenged traditional beliefs and norms. Exploring Technological Advancements: Trace the impact of technological innovations like the automobile, radio, and early forms of mass media on communication, transportation, and daily life. Examine scientific discoveries in fields such as physics, biology, and medicine that revolutionized understanding and influenced societal progress. 4.2 Introduction The 20th century was a watershed period in literature, marked by a remarkable diversity of styles, themes, and voices that reflected the tumultuous social, political, and technological transformations of the era. Emerging from the shadow of Victorian literary conventions, 20th-century literature broke new ground in form, content, and narrative technique, challenging traditional norms and exploring the complexities of modern existence. At the outset of the century, literary modernism emerged as a dominant movement, characterized by experimentation, fragmentation, and a rejection of conventional narrative structures. Writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Franz Kafka sought to capture the subjective experiences and inner workings of consciousness through techniques like stream-of-consciousness and nonlinear 23 storytelling. Their works not only revolutionized literary form but also reflected the anxieties and uncertainties of a world grappling with rapid industrialization, urbanization, and the aftermath of World War I. Simultaneously, the 20th century witnessed the flourishing of regional and national literary movements that celebrated cultural identity and sought to challenge colonialism and imperialism. From the Harlem Renaissance in the United States, which gave voice to African American experiences and culture, to the Latin American Boom that brought international recognition to authors like Gabriel García Márquez and Jorge Luis Borges, these movements enriched global literature with diverse perspectives and narratives previously marginalized. As the century progressed, literature continued to evolve alongside shifting global dynamics. The post- World War II period saw the rise of postmodernism, which questioned grand narratives and embraced irony, intertextuality, and metafiction. Writers like Samuel Beckett, Italo Calvino, and Salman Rushdie pushed the boundaries of storytelling, blurring the lines between fiction and reality while exploring themes of identity, globalization, and the impact of technology on human existence. In summary, 20th-century literature is characterized by its innovative spirit, thematic richness, and diversity of voices. It reflects not only the profound upheavals and challenges of the modern age but also the enduring human quest for meaning, identity, and connection in an increasingly complex and interconnected world. Through its myriad forms and genres, 20th-century literature continues to resonate with readers, offering profound insights into the human condition and shaping our understanding of both the past and the present. 4.3 Modernism (1900s-1930s) Modernism, spanning roughly from the early 1900s to the 1930s, was a revolutionary cultural and artistic movement that reshaped literature, art, music, and architecture. Emerging in response to the upheavals of the industrial age, urbanization, and the trauma of World War I, modernist artists and writers sought to break away from traditional forms and conventions. In literature, modernist writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and T.S. Eliot experimented with narrative techniques like stream-of-consciousness, nonlinear storytelling, and fragmentation of narrative structure. These innovations aimed to capture the complexities of human consciousness and the fragmented nature of modern experience. In art, movements like Cubism (pioneered by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque) and Expressionism (embraced by artists like Edvard Munch and Wassily Kandinsky) rejected realism in favor of abstraction and subjective expression. Modernist architecture, exemplified by figures like Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius, prioritized functionality, simplicity, and the use of new materials like steel and glass. Modernism, therefore, represented a radical departure from the past, challenging established norms and embracing change, innovation, and the avant-garde as a means of reflecting and interpreting the rapidly evolving modern world. 4.4 Post-World War I Literature (1920s-1930s) Post-World War I literature of the 1920s and 1930s represents a profound shift in cultural and artistic expression, reflecting the disillusionment, trauma, and societal upheaval wrought by the Great War. Emerging from the devastation of a conflict that shattered the optimism of the early 20th century, 24 writers of this period grappled with themes of alienation, existential angst, and the search for meaning in an increasingly fragmented world. 1. Modernist Experimentation: Building on the innovations of early 20th-century modernism, writers continued to explore new narrative techniques and forms. James Joyce's "Ulysses" (1922) exemplified the stream-of-consciousness technique, weaving together multiple perspectives and linguistic styles to depict a day in the life of ordinary Dubliners. T.S. Eliot's poem "The Waste Land" (1922) captured the disillusionment and fragmentation of post-war Europe through its dense, allusive style and mythic imagery. 2. Lost Generation: Coined by writer Gertrude Stein and popularized by Ernest Hemingway in his novel "The Sun Also Rises" (1926), the term "Lost Generation" encapsulated the disillusionment and aimlessness felt by a generation of young people who came of age during World War I. Writers like F. Scott Fitzgerald ("The Great Gatsby," 1925) and John Dos Passos ("USA trilogy," 1930-1936) explored themes of decadence, moral decay, and the quest for identity in the post-war era. 3. Existentialism and Absurdism: Post-war literature grappled with existential questions about the meaning of life, the individual's place in an indifferent universe, and the search for authenticity. This existential angst is exemplified in works like Albert Camus's "The Stranger" (1942), which explores the absurdity of human existence and the consequences of alienation. 4. Political and Social Critique: The interwar period also saw literature engage with pressing political and social issues. George Orwell's "Down and Out in Paris and London" (1933) and "Homage to Catalonia" (1938) provided stark critiques of poverty, inequality, and totalitarianism. Writers like Virginia Woolf ("Mrs. Dalloway," 1925) and D.H. Lawrence ("Lady Chatterley's Lover," 1928) explored themes of sexuality, gender roles, and societal norms. 5. International Influences: The period saw a flourishing of literature from around the world, as writers grappled with the global impact of war and the rise of fascism. Works like Franz Kafka's "The Trial" (1925) and Luigi Pirandello's plays reflected the anxieties and absurdities of modern life in Europe. 4.5 Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s) The Harlem Renaissance, spanning the 1920s and 1930s, was a vibrant cultural and intellectual movement centered in Harlem, New York City. It marked a pivotal moment in African American history and literature, celebrating the artistic achievements and cultural identity of Black Americans amid the broader social and political challenges of the era. 1. Cultural Flourishing: The Harlem Renaissance was a period of artistic and intellectual flourishing, encompassing literature, music, visual arts, theater, and dance. Writers, musicians, artists, and intellectuals converged in Harlem, creating a vibrant cultural scene that challenged racial stereotypes and celebrated African American heritage. 2. Literary Achievements: At the heart of the Harlem Renaissance were prominent writers who contributed to a rich body of literature that explored African American experiences and identities. Notable figures include Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, and Jean Toomer. Their works addressed themes of racial identity, discrimination, pride, and the quest for social and economic justice. 3. Poetry and Jazz: Poetry played a central role in the Harlem Renaissance, with poets like Langston Hughes using language and rhythm to capture the rhythms of Black life and experience. Jazz music, which emerged as a distinctly American art form during this period, 25  provided a soundtrack to the movement, reflecting the improvisational spirit and cultural dynamism of Harlem. 4. Visual Arts and Theater: The Harlem Renaissance also witnessed a flourishing of visual arts and theater. Artists like Aaron Douglas incorporated African motifs and themes into their work, while playwrights such as Georgia Douglas Johnson and Eulalie Spence addressed social issues and showcased African American talent on stage. 5. Social and Political Impact: The Harlem Renaissance challenged prevailing racial stereotypes and provided a platform for Black artists to assert their cultural identity and demand social equality. It fostered a sense of solidarity and pride within the African American community and influenced the broader Civil Rights Movement of the 20th century. 6. Legacy: The Harlem Renaissance left a lasting legacy on American culture and literature, paving the way for future generations of African American artists and intellectuals. It highlighted the importance of cultural expression, diversity, and representation in shaping national identity and fostering social change. 4.6 Post-World War II Literature (1940s-1950s) Post-World War II literature of the 1940s and 1950s reflects a profound shift in global consciousness, shaped by the aftermath of the war, the rise of new ideologies, and the challenges of reconstruction and reconciliation. This period witnessed a diverse range of literary responses across different regions and cultural contexts, encapsulating the complexities of a world grappling with the legacy of war and the dawn of the Cold War era. 1. Existentialism and Absurdism: In the aftermath of the war, existentialist and absurdist themes gained prominence in literature, reflecting the disillusionment, alienation, and existential angst prevalent in the post-war world. Writers like Albert Camus ("The Stranger," 1942) and Jean- Paul Sartre ("Nausea," 1938) explored the individual's search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe. 2. Holocaust Literature: The Holocaust, as a defining tragedy of the 20th century, profoundly influenced literature in the post-war period. Writers like Elie Wiesel ("Night," 1956) and Primo Levi ("Survival in Auschwitz," 1947) bore witness to the horrors of Nazi persecution and genocide, grappling with questions of memory, trauma, and the moral implications of human suffering. 3. Modernist and Postmodernist Shifts: Post-World War II literature saw a continuation and evolution of modernist experimentation, as well as the emergence of postmodernist tendencies. Modernist writers like Samuel Beckett ("Waiting for Godot," 1953) and William Faulkner ("The Sound and the Fury," 1929) continued to explore fragmented narratives and psychological depth, while postmodernists like Kurt Vonnegut ("Slaughterhouse-Five," 1969) and Thomas Pynchon ("The Crying of Lot 49," 1966) questioned grand narratives, embraced metafiction, and challenged traditional literary conventions. 4. Cultural and National Identity: Post-war literature also grappled with questions of cultural and national identity, particularly in regions affected by decolonization and social upheaval. Authors like Chinua Achebe ("Things Fall Apart," 1958) and Gabriel García Márquez ("One Hundred Years of Solitude," 1967) drew on their respective cultural heritages to explore themes of colonialism, tradition, and modernity. 5. Cold War Tensions: The ideological tensions of the Cold War era influenced literature, with writers exploring themes of political oppression, surveillance, and the existential threat of nuclear warfare. George Orwell's dystopian novel "1984" (1949) and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich" (1962) offered searing critiques of totalitarianism 26  and state control. 6. Literary Movements and Regional Voices: Post-World War II literature encompassed a diversity of literary movements and regional voices, from the Beat Generation writers in the United States (Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg) to the existentialist novels of French writers like Albert Camus and Simone de Beauvoir. 4.7 Summary In conclusion, post-World War II literature of the 1940s and 1950s reflects a period of profound introspection, experimentation, and social critique. It bears witness to the complexities of a world reshaped by war, ideology, and rapid social change, offering insights into the human condition and the enduring quest for meaning and identity in a tumultuous era. In summary, the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and 1930s was a transformative period in American history, marked by a flourishing of African American culture, literature, and arts. It remains a testament to the resilience, creativity, and cultural contributions of Black Americans in the face of adversity, leaving an indelible mark on the fabric of American society. 4.8 Key Terms Treaty of Versailles: The peace treaty signed in 1919 that officially ended World War I and imposed severe reparations and territorial losses on Germany. Industrialization: The rapid growth of industries and manufacturing during the early 20th century, leading to urbanization, technological advancements, and economic expansion. Interwar Period: The period between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939, characterized by economic instability, political turmoil, and cultural experimentation. 4.9 Review Questions 1. How did World War I reshape global politics and alliances during the early 20th century? 2. What were the main causes and consequences of the Russian Revolution of 1917? 3. How did the Treaty of Versailles contribute to the political instability of the interwar period? 4. How did advancements in transportation, such as automobiles and airplanes, impact society and culture during the early 20th century? 5. What role did radio and telecommunications play in shaping global communication networks during this period? 4.10 References Pindyck, Robert S. "What we know and don't know about climate change, and implications for policy." Environmental and Energy Policy and the Economy 2.1 (2021): 4–43. online Pollard, Sidney, ed. Wealth and Poverty: an Economic History of the 20th Century (1990), 260 pp; 27  global perspective online free Stearns, Peter, ed. The Encyclopedia of World History (2001) UNESCO (February 28, 2008). "The Twentieth Century". History of Humanity. Vol. VII. Routledge. p. 600. ISBN 978-0-415-09311-8. 28 BLOCK-2: WAR POETS AND CRITICISM UNIT 5: T.S Eliot – ‘Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ UNIT 6: W.B Yeats – ‘Second Coming’ UNIT 7: Wilfred Owen – ‘Strange Meeting’& Siegfried Sassoon – ‘Suicide in the Trenches’ UNIT 8: Tradition and Individual Talent 29  UNIT 5: T.S ELIOT – ‘LOVE SONG OF J. ALFRED PRUFROCK’ STRUCTURE 5.1 Objectives 5.2 Introduction 5.3 T. S Eliot and Literature 5.4 T. S Eliot and Other Works 5.5 ‘Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ – The Poem 5.6 Themes and Motifs 5.7 Summary 5.8 Key Terms 5.9 Review Questions 5.10 References 5.1 Objectives The objectives of learning T.S. Eliot, one of the most influential poets of the 20th century, typically include: 1. Understanding Modernist Poetry: Eliot is considered a key figure in the modernist movement in literature. Studying his works helps understand the shift from traditional forms and themes to more experimental and fragmented styles. 2. Exploring Themes of Alienation and Identity: Eliot's poetry often delves into themes of alienation, disillusionment, and the search for identity in the modern world. His works reflect the anxieties and uncertainties of the early 20th century. 3. Analyzing Cultural and Historical Contexts: Learning about Eliot involves understanding the cultural and historical contexts of his writing. His works are influenced by World War I, the rise of industrialization, and changes in societal norms. 4. Appreciating Literary Techniques: Eliot's poetry is known for its complex use of literary techniques such as fragmentation, allusion, and juxtaposition. Studying these techniques enhances literary analysis skills. 5. Examining Religious and Philosophical Themes: Eliot's exploration of religious and philosophical themes, particularly in works like "The Waste Land" and "Four Quartets," offers insights into existential questions and the search for spiritual meaning. 6. Influencing Literature and Criticism: Understanding Eliot's impact on subsequent literature and criticism is crucial. His essays, such as "Tradition and the Individual Talent," have shaped literary theory and criticism. 7. Critiquing Modern Society: Eliot's critiques of modern society, including its spiritual emptiness and moral decay, remain relevant for understanding contemporary issues and cultural critiques. 8. Engaging with Literary Tradition: Eliot's deep engagement with literary tradition, including his revival of metaphysical poetry and incorporation of diverse literary influences, encourages a broader appreciation of literary history. 30  9. Interpreting Ambiguity and Symbolism: Eliot's use of ambiguity and symbolism challenges readers to interpret multiple layers of meaning within his poetry, fostering critical thinking and interpretative skills. 10. Personal Enrichment and Enjoyment: Ultimately, studying T.S. Eliot enriches readers' understanding of poetry and literature, offering profound insights into human experience, society, and the complexities of the modern world. 5.2 Introduction T.S. Eliot, a towering figure in 20th-century literature, revolutionized poetry with his innovative style and profound thematic explorations. Born in 1888 in St. Louis, Missouri, Eliot's works reflect a deep engagement with both classical and modern literary traditions. His poetry, marked by its fragmentation, allusions, and intricate symbolism, captures the fragmented psyche of the post-World War I era. Eliot's seminal work, "The Waste Land," epitomizes the disillusionment and spiritual crisis of the time, while "Four Quartets" delves into themes of time, memory, and spiritual renewal. Beyond his poetry, Eliot's influential essays, such as "Tradition and the Individual Talent," continue to shape literary criticism. Through his profound examination of identity, faith, and the modern condition, Eliot remains an indispensable voice in understanding the complexities of the human experience. 5.3 T. S Eliot and Literature T.S. Eliot's impact on literature is profound and multifaceted, spanning poetry, criticism, and drama. As a poet, Eliot is celebrated for his role in the modernist movement, which revolutionized literary conventions in the early 20th century. His poetry, characterized by its fragmentation, allusive language, and exploration of existential themes, challenged traditional forms and paved the way for new modes of expression. Eliot's most famous work, "The Waste Land" (1922), is a seminal modernist poem that reflects the disillusionment and fragmentation of post-World War I society. It employs a collage-like structure and draws upon a vast array of literary and cultural references, showcasing Eliot's erudition and his ability to capture the complexities of the modern condition. In addition to "The Waste Land," Eliot's "Four Quartets" (1943) stands as a testament to his exploration of time, spirituality, and human experience. These poems, deeply philosophical and richly symbolic, reflect Eliot's later turn towards a more spiritual and contemplative outlook. Beyond his poetry, Eliot made significant contributions to literary criticism. His essays, such as "Tradition and the Individual Talent," articulated influential ideas about the relationship between tradition and innovation in literature. Eliot emphasized the importance of a poet's engagement with the literary heritage while advocating for originality and artistic renewal. Furthermore, Eliot's impact extended to drama with his verse plays like "Murder in the Cathedral" (1935), which explore themes of martyrdom, faith, and political intrigue. These plays, written in poetic language, demonstrate Eliot's mastery of dramatic form and his ability to infuse spiritual and moral themes into theatrical narratives. 31 Overall, T.S. Eliot's contributions to literature transcend mere artistic innovation; they have fundamentally shaped the trajectory of modern poetry, criticism, and drama, influencing generations of writers and thinkers worldwide. His enduring influence lies in his profound engagement with the existential dilemmas of his time and his ability to articulate them with unparalleled poetic mastery. 5.4 T. S Eliot and Other Works Apart from his seminal poetry and critical essays, T.S. Eliot made notable contributions to literature through various other works and endeavors: 1. Drama and Verse Plays: Eliot wrote several verse plays that blend poetic language with dramatic form. One of his most famous works in this genre is "Murder in the Cathedral" (1935), a play that explores the martyrdom of Thomas Becket and themes of faith, political power, and spiritual redemption. This play is renowned for its poetic dialogue and exploration of profound philosophical and theological questions. 2. Literary Criticism: Beyond his essays on poetry and tradition, Eliot's critical writings encompass a wide range of subjects. His essays often delve into the works of other writers, including Shakespeare and Dante, offering insightful interpretations and analyses that continue to influence literary scholarship. 3. Translations: Eliot was also a translator, known particularly for his translations of ancient Greek plays. His translation of "The Bacchae" by Euripides (1950) is considered a significant contribution to bringing classical Greek drama to modern audiences while maintaining its poetic and dramatic integrity. 4. Editorial Work: Eliot served as an editor at Faber and Faber, a prominent publishing house in London. In this role, he played a crucial part in shaping the literary landscape of his time by nurturing and promoting the works of emerging and established writers, including poets like W.H. Auden and Ted Hughes. 5. Radio Plays and Broadcasts: During World War II, Eliot contributed to the war effort through his work in radio broadcasts for the BBC. He wrote and delivered a series of lectures and talks that addressed various cultural and intellectual topics, demonstrating his versatility beyond the written page. 6. Essays on Society and Culture: Eliot's interests extended beyond literature to broader societal and cultural issues. His essays and speeches often engaged with political and social issues of his time, reflecting his concerns about the direction of Western civilization and advocating for a renewal of spiritual and cultural values. In summary, T.S. Eliot's influence on literature and culture extends beyond his poetry and critical essays to encompass a diverse range of works and activities. His contributions as a playwright, translator, editor, broadcaster, and cultural commentator underscore his multidimensional impact on the literary and intellectual landscape of the 20th century. 5.5‘Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ – The Poem S’io credesse che mia risposta fosse A persona che mai tornasse al mondo, 32 Questa fiamma staria senza piu scosse. Ma percioche giammai di questo fondo Non torno vivo alcun, s’i’odo il vero, Senza tema d’infamia ti rispondo. Let us go then, you and I, When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a patient etherized upon a table; Let us go, through certain half-deserted streets, The muttering retreats Of restless nights in one-night cheap hotels And sawdust restaurants with oyster-shells: Streets that follow like a tedious argument Of insidious intent To lead you to an overwhelming question... Oh, do not ask, “What is it?” Let us go and make our visit. In the room the women come and go Talking of Michelangelo. The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-panes, The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window-panes, Licked its tongue into the corners of the evening, Lingered upon the pools that stand in drains, Let fall upon its back the soot that falls from chimneys, Slipped by the terrace, made a sudden leap, And seeing that it was a soft October night, Curled once about the house, and fell asleep. And indeed there will be time For the yellow smoke that slides along the street, Rubbing its back upon the window-panes; There will be time, there will be time To prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet; There will be time to murder and create, And time for all the works and days of hands That lift and drop a question on your plate; Time for you and time for me, And time yet for a hundred indecisions, And for a hundred visions and revisions, Before the taking of a toast and tea. In the room the women come and go Talking of Michelangelo. And indeed there will be time To wonder, “Do I dare?” and, “Do I dare?” 33 Time to turn back and descend the stair, With a bald spot in the middle of my hair — (They will say: “How his hair is growing thin!”) My morning coat, my collar mounting firmly to the chin, My necktie rich and modest, but asserted by a simple pin — (They will say: “But how his arms and legs are thin!”) Do I dare Disturb the universe? In a minute there is time For decisions and revisions which a minute will reverse. For I have known them all already, known them all: Have known the evenings, mornings, afternoons, I have measured out my life with coffee spoons; I know the voices dying with a dying fall Beneath the music from a farther room. So how should I presume? And I have known the eyes already, known them all— The eyes that fix you in a formulated phrase, And when I am formulated, sprawling on a pin, When I am pinned and wriggling on the wall, Then how should I begin To spit out all the butt-ends of my days and ways? And how should I presume? And I have known the arms already, known them all— Arms that are braceleted and white and bare (But in the lamplight, downed with light brown hair!) Is it perfume from a dress That makes me so digress? Arms that lie along a table, or wrap about a shawl. And should I then presume? And how should I begin? Shall I say, I have gone at dusk through narrow streets And watched the smoke that rises from the pipes Of lonely men in shirt-sleeves, leaning out of windows?... I should have been a pair of ragged claws Scuttling across the floors of silent seas. And the afternoon, the evening, sleeps so peacefully! Smoothed by long fingers, Asleep... tired... or it malingers, Stretched on the floor, here beside you and me. Should I, after tea and cakes and ices, Have the strength to force the moment to its crisis? But though I have wept and fasted, wept and prayed, 34 Though I have seen my head (grown slightly bald) brought in upon a platter, I am no prophet — and here’s no great matter; I have seen the moment of my greatness flicker, And I have seen the eternal Footman hold my coat, and snicker, And in short, I was afraid. And would it have been worth it, after all, After the cups, the marmalade, the tea, Among the porcelain, among some talk of you and me, Would it have been worth while, To have bitten off the matter with a smile, To have squeezed the universe into a ball To roll it towards some overwhelming question, To say: “I am Lazarus, come from the dead, Come back to tell you all, I shall tell you all”— If one, settling a pillow by her head Should say: “That is not what I meant at all; That is not it, at all.” And would it have been worth it, after all, Would it have been worth while, After the sunsets and the dooryards and the sprinkled streets, After the novels, after the teacups, after the skirts that trail along the floor— And this, and so much more?— It is impossible to say just what I mean! But as if a magic lantern threw the nerves in patterns on a screen: Would it have been worth while If one, settling a pillow or throwing off a shawl, And turning toward the window, should say: “That is not it at all, That is not what I meant, at all.” No! I am not Prince Hamlet, nor was meant to be; Am an attendant lord, one that will do To swell a progress, start a scene or two, Advise the prince; no doubt, an easy tool, Deferential, glad to be of use, Politic, cautious, and meticulous; Full of high sentence, but a bit obtuse; At times, indeed, almost ridiculous— Almost, at times, the Fool. I grow old... I grow old... I shall wear the bottoms of my trousers rolled. Shall I part my hair behind? Do I dare to eat a peach? I shall wear white flannel trousers, and walk upon the beach. I have heard the mermaids singing, each to each. 35 I do not think that they will sing to me. I have seen them riding seaward on the waves Combing the white hair of the waves blown back When the wind blows the water white and black. We have lingered in the chambers of the sea By sea-girls wreathed with seaweed red and brown Till human voices wake us, and we drown. Let us go then, you and I, When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a patient etherized upon a table; Let us go, through certain half-deserted streets, The muttering retreats Of restless nights in one-night cheap hotels And sawdust restaurants with oyster-shells: Streets that follow like a tedious argument Of insidious intent To lead you to an overwhelming question... Oh, do not ask, “What is it?” Let us go and make our visit. In the room the women come and go Talking of Michelangelo. The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-panes, The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window-panes, Licked its tongue into the corners of the evening, Lingered upon the pools that stand in drains, Let fall upon its back the soot that falls from chimneys, Slipped by the terrace, made a sudden leap, And seeing that it was a soft October night, Curled once about the house, and fell asleep. And indeed there will be time For the yellow smoke that slides along the street, Rubbing its back upon the window-panes; There will be time, there will be time To prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet; There will be time to murder and create, And time for all the works and days of hands That lift and drop a question on your plate; Time for you and time for me, And time yet for a hundred indecisions, And for a hundred visions and revisions, Before the taking of a toast and tea. In the room the women come and go Talking of Michelangelo. 36 And indeed there will be time To wonder, “Do I dare?” and, “Do I dare?” Time to turn back and descend the stair, With a bald spot in the middle of my hair — (They will say: “How his hair is growing thin!”) My morning coat, my collar mounting firmly to the chin, My necktie rich and modest, but asserted by a simple pin — (They will say: “But how his arms and legs are thin!”) Do I dare Disturb the universe? In a minute there is time For decisions and revisions which a minute will reverse. For I have known them all already, known them all: Have known the evenings, mornings, afternoons, I have measured out my life with coffee spoons; I know the voices dying with a dying fall Beneath the music from a farther room. So how should I presume? And I have known the eyes already, known them all— The eyes that fix you in a formulated phrase, And when I am formulated, sprawling on a pin, When I am pinned and wriggling on the wall, Then how should I begin To spit out all the butt-ends of my days and ways? And how should I presume? And I have known the arms already, known them all— Arms that are braceleted and white and bare (But in the lamplight, downed with light brown hair!) Is it perfume from a dress That makes me so digress? Arms that lie along a table, or wrap about a shawl. And should I then presume? And how should I begin? Shall I say, I have gone at dusk through narrow streets And watched the smoke that rises from the pipes Of lonely men in shirt-sleeves, leaning out of windows?... I should have been a pair of ragged claws Scuttling across the floors of silent seas. And the afternoon, the evening, sleeps so peacefully! Smoothed by long fingers, Asleep... ti