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lOMoARcPSD|20347401 Table of Contents Survey of Anglophone Literature: Focus Britain.................................................................................. 1 1. Introduction................................................................................................................................... 1 What is British?.......................................................................................................................................... 1 Stone Age (500,000 – 3000 BCE)................................................................................................................... 1 The Bronze Age (2,750 – 750 BCE)................................................................................................................ 1 The Iron Age (750 BCE – 43 AD).................................................................................................................... 2 Roman Britain - Roman invasion between 43-410 CE – 1st invasion..................................................................................... 3 Anglo-Saxon Britain - Germania 449 BCE-1066 CE – 2nd invasion........................................................................................ 4 What is literature?...................................................................................................................................... 4 2. The Middle Ages I........................................................................................................................... 6 What does literature in English mean and when does it start?..................................................................... 6 Old English Literature................................................................................................................................. 7 “Dream of the Rood”........................................................................................................................................................... 8 “Battle(-field) of Maldon”..................................................................................................................................................... 8 “Beowulf”............................................................................................................................................................................ 9 3. The Middle Ages II........................................................................................................................ 10 Middle English ME.....................................................................................................................................10 Jean Bodel................................................................................................................................................10 Middle English Literature...........................................................................................................................11 “Layamon’s Brut”............................................................................................................................................................... 11 “Gawain and the Green Knight”.......................................................................................................................................... 11 Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400)....................................................................................................................12 In the late 15th century (1455-85) the War of the Roses................................................................................13 4. English Renaissance Literature I.................................................................................................. 15 Renaissance in England:...........................................................................................................................15 Culture.....................................................................................................................................................16 Thomas More (1478-1525)..........................................................................................................................17 Edmund Spenser (1552- 1599)....................................................................................................................17 Philip Sidney (1554-1586)...........................................................................................................................18 5. English Renaissance Literature II................................................................................................. 19 James I (1566-1625)...................................................................................................................................19 Charles I (1600 – 1649)...............................................................................................................................19 The commonwealth..................................................................................................................................19 Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)..............................................................................................................19 Shakespeare (1564-1616):..........................................................................................................................19 Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 6. Restoration and 18th Century........................................................................................................ 20 Charles II (1660-1685) imitated French culture,..........................................................................................20 James II (1685-1688)..................................................................................................................................20 William III (1689-1702)...............................................................................................................................20 Anne (1702-1714).......................................................................................................................................20 John Milton (1608-1674).............................................................................................................................20 John Bunyan (1628-1688)............................................................................................................................22 Restoration drama....................................................................................................................................22 Restoration Comedy.................................................................................................................................22 John Dryden (1631-1700)...........................................................................................................................22 Augustan Literature...................................................................................................................................22 Joseph Addison (1672-1719).......................................................................................................................23 Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)........................................................................................................................23 Alexander Pope (1688-1744).......................................................................................................................23 Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)...........................................................................................................................24 Samuel Richardson (1689-1761).................................................................................................................24 Henry Fielding (1707-1754).........................................................................................................................24 Laurence Sterne (1713-1768).....................................................................................................................25 James Macpherson (1736-1796).................................................................................................................25 Horace Walpole (1717-1797)......................................................................................................................25 The Castle of Otranto (1744),.....................................................................................................................25 Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)......................................................................................................................25 Edmund Burke (1729-1797)........................................................................................................................26 The Sublime and the Beautiful (1756).........................................................................................................26 Robert Burns (1759-1796)...........................................................................................................................26 7. Romantic Literature..................................................................................................................... 27 Revolution................................................................................................................................................27 William Blake (1757-1827)..........................................................................................................................27 William Wordsworth (1770-1850)...............................................................................................................28 Samuel Tylor Coleridge (1772-1835)...........................................................................................................28 Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) - a Scot..........................................................................................................29 Lord Byron (1788-1824)..............................................................................................................................29 Percy Byshee Shelley (1792-1822)..............................................................................................................30 John Keats (1795-1821)..............................................................................................................................30 PROSE:.....................................................................................................................................................30 Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 Charles Lamb (1775-1834).........................................................................................................................30 William Hazlitt (1778-1830)........................................................................................................................31 Thomas De Quincey (1785-1859)................................................................................................................31 Thomas Love Peacock (1785-1866).............................................................................................................31 Mary Shelley (1797-1851)...........................................................................................................................31 Maria Edgeworth (1768-1849).....................................................................................................................31 Walter Scott (1771-1832) - prose................................................................................................................31 Jane Austen (1775-1817)............................................................................................................................32 8. The Victorian Era I........................................................................................................................ 33 Early Victorian (1830+)...............................................................................................................................33 Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881).......................................................................................................................34 John Stuart Mill (1806-1873).......................................................................................................................34 !! John Ruskin (1819-1900)..........................................................................................................................34 John Henry Newman (1801-1890)...............................................................................................................35 Charles Darwin (1809-1882).......................................................................................................................35 Matthew Arnold (1822-1888)......................................................................................................................36 VICTORIAN POETRY...................................................................................................................................36 Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892)......................................................................................................................36 Elizabeth Barrett (Browning) (1806-1861) and Robert Browning (1812-1889).................................................37 Robert B.:..................................................................................................................................................37 Matthew Arnolds (as a poet)......................................................................................................................37 Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882)............................................................................................................37 Christina Rossetti (1830-1894)...................................................................................................................37 Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837-1909)...................................................................................................38 Gerard Hopkins (1844-1889).......................................................................................................................38 9. The Victorian Era II....................................................................................................................... 39 Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)....................................................................................................................39 Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855).....................................................................................................................39 Emily Bronte (1818-1848)...........................................................................................................................39 Charles Dickens (1812-1870):.....................................................................................................................40 William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863)................................................................................................40 Anthony Trollope (1815-1882).....................................................................................................................41 George Eliot (1819-1880)............................................................................................................................41 Charles Lutwidge Dodgsen aka Lewis Carroll (1832-1898)...........................................................................42 Henry James (USA)....................................................................................................................................42 Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 Thomas Hardy (1840-1928).........................................................................................................................43 Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894)...........................................................................................................43 Walter Pater (1839-1894):...........................................................................................................................43 Oscar Fingall O’Flahertie Wills Wilde (1854-1900):......................................................................................44 George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)..............................................................................................................44 Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936).......................................................................................................................45 10. 20th century I............................................................................................................................. 46 John Galsworthy (1867-1933).....................................................................................................................46 Arnold Bennett (1867 – 1931)......................................................................................................................46 H. G. Wells (1866 – 1946)............................................................................................................................46 G. K. Chesterton (1874 – 1936)....................................................................................................................47 Joseph Conrad (1857 – 1924)......................................................................................................................47 E. M. Forster (1879 – 1970)..........................................................................................................................48 Ford Madox Ford (1873 – 1939)...................................................................................................................48 Pre-War Verse...........................................................................................................................................49 Thomas Hardy (as a poet)..........................................................................................................................49 War Poetry................................................................................................................................................49 Rupert Brooke (1887 – 1915).......................................................................................................................49 Siegfried Sassoon (1886 - 1967)..................................................................................................................49 Edward Thomas (1878 – 1917)....................................................................................................................49 Modernism...............................................................................................................................................49 D. H. Lawrence (1885 – 1930)......................................................................................................................50 James Joyce (1882 – 1941)..........................................................................................................................50 Ezra Pound (1885 – 1972)............................................................................................................................51 Thomas Stearns Eliot (1887 – 1965)............................................................................................................51 William Butler Yeats (1865 – 1939)..............................................................................................................52 Virginia Woolf (1882 – 1941).......................................................................................................................52 11. 20th century II.............................................................................................................................. 53 Wystan Hugh (W.H.) Auden (1907-1973)......................................................................................................53 Evelyn Waugh (1903-1966).........................................................................................................................54 Graham Greene (1904-1991).......................................................................................................................55 Anthony Powell (1905-2000).......................................................................................................................55 George Orwell (1903-1950).........................................................................................................................55 Clive Staples Lewis (1898-1963).................................................................................................................56 J. R. R. Tolkien (1892-1973).........................................................................................................................56 Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 World War II..............................................................................................................................................57 Dylan Thomas (1914-1955).........................................................................................................................57 Terence Rattigan (1911-1977).....................................................................................................................57 Sean O’Casey (1880-1964).........................................................................................................................57 Samuel Beckett (1906-1989)......................................................................................................................58 John Osborne (1929-1994)..........................................................................................................................58 Angry Young man.......................................................................................................................................58 Harold Pinter (1930-2008)..........................................................................................................................58 The Theatre of Cruelty...............................................................................................................................59 William Golding (1911-1993)......................................................................................................................59 Muriel Spark (1918-2006) (Maura Camberg)................................................................................................60 John Fowles (1926-2005)............................................................................................................................60 Philip Larkin (1922-1985)............................................................................................................................61 Ted Hughes (1930-1998).............................................................................................................................61 Seamus Heaney (1939-2013)......................................................................................................................61 12. Contemporary Literature............................................................................................................ 62 contemporary drama.................................................................................................................................62 DRAMA.....................................................................................................................................................62 Alan Bennett (*1934)..................................................................................................................................62 Sarah Kane (1971-1999, only 28 years)........................................................................................................62 Mark Ravenhill (*1966)...............................................................................................................................63 POETRY.....................................................................................................................................................63 Douglas Dunn...........................................................................................................................................63 Paul Muldoon (*1951)................................................................................................................................63 Carol-Ann Duffy (*1955).............................................................................................................................63 PROSE......................................................................................................................................................63 University Novel........................................................................................................................................64 Anthony Burgess (1917-1993).....................................................................................................................64 Metropolitan Novel...................................................................................................................................64 Ian McEwan (*1948)...................................................................................................................................65 Martin Amis (*1949)...................................................................................................................................65 Julian Barnes (*1946).................................................................................................................................65 Angela Carter (1940-1992)..........................................................................................................................65 Kazuo Ishiguro (*1954)...............................................................................................................................66 Penelope Fitzgerald (1916-2000)................................................................................................................66 Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 POSTCOLONIAL LITERATURE.....................................................................................................................66 Salman Rushdie (*1981)............................................................................................................................66 V.S. Naipaul (1932-2018)............................................................................................................................67 multiculturalism and diversity...................................................................................................................67 Alan Hollinghurst......................................................................................................................................67 genre-fiction:............................................................................................................................................67 spy fiction:................................................................................................................................................68 John LeBarrey (1931-2020).........................................................................................................................68 fantasy fiction:..........................................................................................................................................68 Phillip Pullman (*1946)..............................................................................................................................68 J.K. Rowling (*1965)...................................................................................................................................68 Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 1 Survey of Anglophone Literature: Focus Britain 1. Introduction What is British? Britain as a space concept: It has more than 6000 islands about 300 000km², and only 136 are permanently habited by 70 Million people. Great Britain is the biggest of these islands. Approximately 60 Million people live on its 210 000 km². Ireland is the second biggest and has only 6,4 Million inhabitants (in the 19th century there were about 9 Million before the Britons came and colonised Ireland). Even though we call Britain the biggest island, it used to be attached to the continent. There were hunter-gatherers (first population) living in this area earlier. Ireland was separated from Britain before Britain was separated from the continent. (Numbers are not asked) Due to the ice which melted (the ice age) the sea level rose and the final shift came in one single day (one single event!). That caused a Tsunami (wall of water 100 km) which is known as the most powerful catastrophe in the last years. The waves were 10 m high during the ice melt. This catastrophe had also a huge impact on the British mentality (even though it was by no means called British back then). Neil Oliver described in A History of Ancient Britain (2012) that the Island of Britain started with a catastrophe. William Shakespeare mentioned in Richard I (1595) the idea of insularity which makes up the British mind. The term Doggerland means the part of land which connected the continent with Britain, the name derives from the Dogger Bank and was named after the doggers, Old Dutch fishing boats especially used for catching cod. The devastation rested in their memory for a very long time. This drama created British identity and started culture and history, but also connected them to other cultures. The aspect of water and living near to it causes sort of a familiar feeling as well as fear (threat of the outside – the sea is always here). So the element of water is part of Britishness. Britain as a name concept: Stone Age (500,000 – 3000 BCE) Stonehenge (3000 BCE) is an implication that Britain (by this time not yet Britain) was always an old settlement for humans. 500,000 BCE Boxgrove man was found in West Sussex at this time. The oldest settlement was found in England. When people started settling they became farmers, so they needed to know the seasons, weather, sun and moon – so they studied the stars to get a bountiful crop. The Bronze Age (2,750 – 750 BCE) (still not Britain) By this time Britain was rich in minerals and had everything you needed to create Bronze. Around 2,750 BCE the Beaker people settled in Cornwall, which was the richest area of minerals (there were many mines). Bronze =copper + tin. There was no implication for violence from the South, which means that the settlers from Turkey were peaceful. By this time, they started to build huts. The immigrants brought a new lifestyle. The wheel was invented in Zummar, Iraq as well as pottery. The history of Britain is a history of immigrants (new technology revolution). There was never an invasion, they just came and started building artificial hills (Beaker People). It was a peaceful migration. lOMoARcPSD|20347401 2 The Iron Age (750 BCE – 43 AD) (Britain as a concept started happening) Iron (new technology developed in Europe) and the Britons (Celtic Britons) arrived in 750 BCE. They developed art and Celtic crafts, and culture started. The immigrants brought the culture (also agriculture and warfare) to the island. Hillforts were built. Greeks: Herodotus – mentioned the tin richness; Strabo called Britain “Albion” and Ireland “Ierne”. Pytheas travelled around the island, circled and navigated it. He then talked to his partners in Goul (France), he himself was from Marseille. Britain was then called the ‘tin islands’, now Pretannike (Britons called themselves Pretannikai). Romans: the Roman Empire ended the Iron Age in 43 AD; Tacitus called them savages to get a justification for their invasion. Created a wrong image of Britons. Caesar’s speeches were full of bias and his texts were propaganda texts for war. Tacitus talked about his father-in-law and how he civilised the Britons. Caesar used his Bellum Gallicum to promote his beliefs. He wrote that the Britons used woad to get their typical blue colour into their faces. This was actually used for their warriors since it promoted the healing of wounds and stopped bleeding. He also talked about the various kinds of marriages among families (like one woman was married to father and son at the same time…). But actually, the Britons had already contracts which regulated their set of marriage. Back then also men had sexual contact with other men – this was insane for the Romans! Britons always moved around, therefore there were many different clans. But new settlements were mostly without any violence. People were just migrants, that came and went without violence, exchange of goods and ideas. In the entire history, there have been only 2 real invasions. Because the migrants who came and went had a connection to Europe and were peaceful. Therefore, they exchanged a lot, also architecture: Hallstadt style: 800 BC in Austria (Salzkammergut): long swords, geometrical designs, clear and straight lines. (also concerned with arts and crafts) La-Tène style: 500 BC in Switzerland: spirals, wavy lines. Most people who brought their culture were from Switzerland (Celts). So, their original culture comes from the Celts. Celts came to Britain in 2 waves from Eastern & Central Europe. However, the Celts were firstly immigrants from ancient Austria (Noricum) and then went North. The other part moved to upper Italy and then South. Also to Greece & Turkey, East and South-East (gave the name “Ankyra” to today’s Ankara). Since they travelled all around Europe, their mother tongue can be considered even older than Sanscrit. The different dialects and languages gave most places names e.g. Ankara. The past did not fade, the names are still there. When they came to Britain: 1st wave - The Gaels moved to Ireland and the Scottish Highlands and brought Gallic as a language. 2nd wave - The Brythoni migrated to England, Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. Their language was Welsh, Cornish and Breton. The British were not Celts in the biological sense, they used their language, culture, etc. but genetically speaking there was no cultural colonisation. The Celtic heritage included cultural and political concepts. (kind of a first EU – different tribes share the same values & norms) There were different tribes like nations: the Ulaid (Emain Macha/Navan Fort) Northern Ireland (Ulster Cycle – Irish mythology) Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 3 the Durotriges (biggest city Mai Dun; people of the hill: Dunedain in Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings.) the Brigantes in North County (Northern England) the Picti in Scotland (means painted people, tattooed). Ireland was by then a highly urbanised and civilised society which had exchanges with the island. There were about 30,000 hillforts/cities at that time with large warehouses and they were not separated from the continent. Then the Romans came (between 43-410 CE). But the more Caesar took, the more the Gallons and Britons helped each other. That concerned Caesar, so he started the first invasion of Britain (the Roman solution). Invasion of Romans to Gaul. The actual name Britannia was a misspelling of Caesar; he didn’t know how to write Pretani. During the invasion, Germania helped the Britons but stayed then. This was the second invasion. They genetically displaced Britain by mass-raping and killing the majority of British men (genetically wiped out). Languages: Celtic languages (Indo-European languages) travelled across Europe (might be older than Sanskrit) – very old culture brought to Britain. Scots, Irish, Galic, Manx Cornish, Welsh, Breton (not originated in Brittany – British dialect) Evidence of Celtic culture: counting system: enne, meeine, miny, moe...(Auszählreim today, counting sheep) British place names: Avon (abona = river) Dover (dubris = water) Kent (cantus= border) was the county closest to the continent Thames (tamesis =darkness, black) because the water was so muddy (low tight – black river) → Hill Dun Brick – actually means “Hill Hill Hill” Inhabitants of Britain: called themselves “Pretani” (painted people) Welsh = not a Celtic name, called themselves “Cymry” = companionship, brotherhood (companions), the Germanic called them “Welsh” = foreign, the others, the Wealas The Cymry called the Britons “Prydyn” Romans called the Brits “Britannia” and the Celts “Picti” (Latin) Britishness meant to be Celtic; to be English is a very recent phenomenon. Roman Britain - Roman invasion between 43-410 CE – 1st invasion They did not conquer all of Britain, only to the Hadrian Wall and the Antonius Wall. Never invaded Wales or Scotland! King Offa built a wall called “Offa’s Dyke”. → Myth of the leader = Arthus, who fought the invaders. lOMoARcPSD|20347401 4 Anglo-Saxon Britain - Germania 449 BCE-1066 CE – 2nd invasion The Anglo-Saxon Conquest Germanians came to Britain (to stop a fight in the first place) but decided to stay and became the real invaders! It’s not a peaceful migration. Forced their culture into Britons. They killed men, and raped women, to genetically replace the Celts and Romans with the Germanians. England means “Land of the Angles”. Scotland comes from “scoti” which means “pirates” in Latin, because the population of Scotland were Irish pirates. Due to these mixed cultures and societies, no one knows what Britishness is actually about. What is literature? Raymond Williams explains the keywords. Literature (“littera” = Latin, which means “letter of the alphabet”) is polite learning through reading, extended practice and profession of writing. The rich paid the poor to create art. When capitalism came (18th cent.) the book market expanded, and rich people were now publishers. Raymond Williams wrote in Keywords, “It is not easy to understand what is at stake in these often confused distinctions […]” The idea of national literature arose in the 18th century (political matter). This can’t be true for Britain because, at this time, the authors moved around and lived in more than only one country, so there was a great influence from other cultures and countries. The Germans invented the term national literature. Back then, literature was about certain kinds of writing and different levels of quality. Even today we distinguish between subliterary (popular literature) which is not seen as art and high literature. This notion was challenged in the mid-20th century because people started to see writing and communication as culture. Marjorie Garber (2011) talks about literature as a movement as literature is changing (it’s a more active thing). However, they started to distinguish high literature/print literature and throw-away literature (high/low, privileged/popular, aesthetic/professional, keep/throw away). Also, Garber says, “What this means when we come to ask the question ‘What isn’t literature?’ is that all too likely, today’s answer will not suit the circumstances of tomorrow – or perhaps of yesterday.” Rob Pope says that before there was this belief that Austin, Dickens, and Shakespeare… were the best way to study English. This attitude changed, since nowadays we see the author as a normal person, not as a genius. The focus is on Authors, works, genres, social movements and national literatures. Literature has changed. Equality of literature! There are “Englishes” and nothing is inferior, they are all on the same level and have to be treated equally. Return to Literary Studies: Literature as book learning, processes and products of reading and writing; texts > literary works; socio-historical and power dimension (discourse) – literature becomes discourse Romantic: author as a genius Today: literature procedural, socio-historical context, also political, no difference in quality! (only different kinds) Linguistics is now part of literature. (implicit – explicit; literature in a political sense, reading and writing is political) Cultural dimension must be addressed – all of the Englishes, all cultures, oral, audio-visual, print What is British literature? Talk about the canon of texts – traditionally important enough to talk about in English studies (by white dead men). Britishness of these texts can only be pinpointed on the Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 5 geographical and cultural space of Great Britain (texts by authors from the island or authors that are deemed important enough to talk about, who have assimilated into Britishness e.g. Irish authors). We are talking about texts in Old English, Middle English and Modern English (no Celtic languages). lOMoARcPSD|20347401 6 2. The Middle Ages I What does literature in English mean and when does it start? Late antiquity, very early Middle Ages 409/10 BC Britain Romans were gone due to war, they were kicked out of Britain – total chaos back then; the country was divided into little kingdoms with Roman and Celtic cultures; Germanic tribes invaded the Celtic (Romans, Roman Celtics) the tribes were led by two brothers, who were called Hengest and Horsa (meaning “stallion and horse”), they weren’t really invaders because they were invited by the British King Vortigern to help him fighting the Scots and Picts from Ireland. However, they stayed and became the next problem. They turned against Vortigern and established permanent settlements (became part of Britain), we call them Anglo-Saxons and Jutes (from southern Denmark settled in middle England, from northern Germany to Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Jutes settled from Denmark to Kent etc.). To circulate possession and power Romans and Celts were gift takers; Germanic tribes had a shared society – gift giving, they were no traders, and had a strong sense of kinship. They had open debates to settle disputes = ‘thing’ (oldest democratic tradition since the 8th century → gather it in a thing). The oldest parliamentary tradition comes from Iceland (the oldest democracy called “althing”). Jutes (from northern Denmark) settled in Kent, Isle of Weight → highly stratified and rural culture they were gift givers; a strong sense of kinship had open assemblies and debates called “thing” In 793 CE the Viking Age began! Overlords from everywhere came to form their own kingships in Britain, but this didn’t last long (because all of the kings were greedy). Henry of Huntington (an English historian) came up with the idea of the Heptarchy → the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex and Wessex. Kingship was based on military success and the kingdoms and kings were one! If a king conquered stuff or land he succeeded. However, things shifted quickly as all of the kingdoms rose but failed after some time. The kingdoms were constantly moving as they were fighting all the time. Interesting kings: King Offa - King of Mercia, established a monetary system → he introduced a monetary system in Britain: coins (Greek, Germanic, Celtic influence) had a virtual money set of half a cow (today Wales); “Offa’s Dyke” was built against invaders to former inhabitants; Christianity was very important for him. Alfred the Great (he unified Anglo-Saxon kingdoms) - King of Wessex and later of all Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. He was highly educated (had a large library) and a Christian ruler. He introduced education to the people (library, …). Yearbooks (the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles) were updated in 1154. He wanted to be the same great ruler as Charlemagne (Karl der Große – ruler of France and Germany). In 793 CE the Anglo-Saxons replaced Bretonic inhabitation in one movement; so the invaders were invaded by their own people and relatives (by Vikings - Germanic tribes). After the attack on the Lindisfarne, the Vikings attacked the Anglo-Saxons – Alfred achieved a standstill and forced the Vikings to make peace with them but it split England even more as the Vikings got their own land on the island and therefore there was a settlement by a Danish colony with Danish law ruling (Dane Law). Small islands but highly fragmented space the puzzle of Britain therefore King Aethelstan came to unify England (King of Mercia and later King of the English); in 927 it was the very first time he marched England; he was the first king of England but rates picked up again and he was only king on paper. He lost most of England again and King Alfred’s great-son King Edgar the Peaceful re-conquered England in 975 and managed Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 7 to make a stable and unified kingdom. Æthelred the Unready also called Unraed (son of King Edgar the Peaceful) "Unready" is a mistranslation of the Old English word unræd (meaning badcounselled) - the “ill-advised”; became king when he was only 12 in 978. He lost all of England to the Danes in 1013. The Danish King Canute (or Cnut) took the English throne in 1016 when Unraed died (it was a small island at this time); he married the widow of Unraed called Emma who was also the daughter of the Duke of Normandy! Nor/man/dy = north men (Vikings from Scandinavia settled in northern France and became French). In 1018 Canute became King of Sweden and all of England and Scandinavia was ruled by him – the Anglo Scandinavian Empire; the sons of Emma and Canute died and only the sons of Unraed survived (!) so they got the throne of England. King Edward the Confessor. After King Edward the Confessor died in 1066 Duke William of Normandy made a deal with the Anglo- Saxon King William sailed over the Channel and killed King Harold Godwinson (the last Anglo-Saxon king of England) and got rid of Anglo Saxon kingdom forever (Battle of Hastings). The permanent Norman occupation area ends Germanic relations with England. He was the first Norman King of England. English king, who is Vessel to the French king in France? Old English Literature Related languages of Anglo-Saxon peoples formed dialects of Old English (OE): first literature was found in Northumbria (north of the river Humber) and was the first written record of Old English poetry. A monk called Bede, who lived in the late 7th century, wrote about the poet and worker called Caedmon in 731, Caedmon was a simple man but felt inspired and composed written poetry in Old English: “Caedmon’s Hymn” (it is the oldest recorded Old English poem). The text was translated into Latin by Bede and lost lots of beauty in Old English (as Old English was not the language the educated people used, it was still Latin); it wasn’t considered Old English it was more like music than a text. Poetic compositions of so-called “scops” [skops] (or “skops” [ kopsʃ ]) → these were oral poets who produced spontaneous texts and performed them it happened in a group of people; it was more about the performance than anything else. structure: fixed syllabic count and alliterations ended with the least stressed one, usage of the “kennings theory” (to describe a person with more than just one word, more than just saying “the King” or “my wife”); these texts weren’t fixed but performances changed with the audience; flexible variations and voice adapted to situations; became the voice of the community - they hear a poem and tell it to someone else that’s how literature was spread. (storytelling – communicative) Poetry = where there is always an end rhyme; Old English used alliteration ( no end rhymes) the first syllable was the same (alliteration structure of century) o Copying of manuscripts → The church had an influence on how these texts were transmitted → monks copied manuscripts by hand (copied not just religious works) during the 10th century (“gap of 100 years” no books); values of these texts shifted due to the impact of the church (Exeter Book, Vercelli Book). Normandy → wasn’t clear to people that they were Christians although they were Christianized (different in many ways), there were also other people defenders, etc. in the same church. All of these manuscripts have no real written evidence about these texts (written later); actually, there is no original version of Williams (StillPost). Chanson de geste – “Rolandslied” (La Chanson de Roland) was used as a war song during the Battle of Rondeaux heroic end of Roland Roland is lOMoARcPSD|20347401 8 the French national hero; this song commemorates the Battle of Rondeaux (like the German “Nibelungen”); legends go back to real history Famous old English poetry: (heroic epic literature) “Song of Deor /Lament of Deor” (in the Exeter Book only one which rhymes) 10th century, a gnomic poem (structure + rhyme helps you to memorise information); faded glory of heroes; leitmotif is “that passed away and so may this” means, you cannot hold on to anything in life and you will lose everything; “pantha rhei” = let it flow; Deor was a scop; story: in the poem, Deor's lord has replaced him. Deor mentions various figures from Germanic mythology and reconciles his own troubles with the troubles these figures faced, “Thaes ofereode/ thisses swa maeg” “Dream of the Rood” (in the Vercelli Book) Rood = Cross (the parliament building in Edinburgh is also called “Holy Rood”), literally means the “Dream of the Cross”; traditions come together; a picture of the superhero Christ tradition of Christianity infused. Christ kicking asses image of what people had at that time of Christ. Christ was more seen as a warrior; they had a very different image of Christ then. Only later (15th – 14th century) did he turn into the image we have today (the whiney bitchy Christ). Christ was the hero back then! “Battle(-field) of Maldon” Celebrates a defeat in the real Battle of Maldon in 991; the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a Viking invasion (during the reign of Æthelred the Unready); the beginning and end of the poem are lost; the original manuscript had been destroyed Themes: very masculine literature → celebrates masculinity, physical and military powers, and loyalty to the king not to the nation. Identity of the people → telling stories; Comitatus → Germanic friendship structure - young, single warriors lived, ate, and slept together in the great hall of the King (did basically everything together); women only came in as child bearers or through marriage to get status and they used to create social relation between men and women (to bring peace); but women were also seen as witches or enemies constantly plotting against men (trophy wife, child, etc.); the war circulates women and gift giving (women within the same tribe); precious objects marked status and confirmation of loyalty; wealth had to be shared and circulated → you’ve money to use it to give gifts to people don’t horde money → idea of the circulation of wealth (you are not alone you are part of a community) → Reciprocal giving/obligation → acknowledge own mortality by handing over money. Enemies: treasure-hoarding dragons & greedy kings; Heriot = death tax: “theign” or “thegn”1 [thain] = a warrior who fights for someone higher than himself (usually his king). If a thegn dies, the king takes his belongings and takes care of his family (reaches beyond death) → bond is very strong; and community-oriented → later introduced as an inheritance tax but it is totally different. (Heriot comes from heregeatwa, = the arms and equipment (geatwa) of a soldier or army (here). 1 a person ranking between an earl and an ordinary freeman, holding land of the king or a lord in return for services. Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 9 “Beowulf” (Beowulf manuscript) The name itself is a kenning, which means “beewolf/bearwolf”; Prototypic Germanic and Celtic hero called “Bearwolf”; Old English poem, oldest manuscript from 10th century (probably 300-400 years older than the others), anonymous, epic poem, celebrating achievement of the hero Bearwolf; structured into three encounters/battles with monsters that disrupt human society (also side stories); gives an idea of the larger human society and traditions; poems themselves were Christian heroic. The text represents the mixed culture and society of that time. The settlement of the text isn’t in England (maybe Scandinavia, Southern Sweden); full of references to the ancestral world of heroes and spirits descendants of the king, etc.; heroic acts of superhero Christ (again), stable ordered society and restless wondering heroes; the poet himself was probably Christian, but there is also a pagan (heidnische) worldview of his characters; battle between Good and Evil (nature). The poem contains references to the Germanic World in a Christian society. Stable, ordered Society vs. merchandising moving society and warriors. Those two worlds collide, which is mirrored in Beowulf. Also, the ambiguity of creation is mentioned: there’s not only good, but it also takes a hero to make the creation good. Takes effort to realize God’s promise! Battles of hero: monsters vs. hero (antisocial vs. social) Every person fulfils a role in society: King = ring giver + gold friend binds his warriors with his ring Human society = bound Nature = untamed monsters 1st monster is Grendel (created by a sea witch) Beowulf kills it 2nd monster is the sea witch, who is angry because Beowulf killed her “son” (a reference to Sigmund = Siegfried in Nibelungenlied, who dies). This reference makes the audience of this time understand, that Beowulf will die too. 3rd monster is the dragon; Beowulf is an old but good king. Dragon endangers his city; nobody wants to fight against the dragon, only Beowulf himself. He kills the dragon but he dies as well, which makes sense because society refused to help him, so the society, which was made up of the King, dies too! Society destroyed its own Kingdom; in an antisocial inhumane manner – we need to stick together. Beowulf = impersonation of Old English society. Dragon = symbol of greed – which kills society. The text is full of complex and confusing signs; Germanic epics always end in catastrophes. lOMoARcPSD|20347401 10 3. The Middle Ages II Middle English Literature (1066 – 12th century) Middle English ME It’s problematic to draw a line between Old English and Middle English. Language gradually changed, because so many people from different countries came and had to understand each other. The change of language, culture, and the worldview changed over the years. Old English grammar was simplified (when the French came); English got rid of its case system and lost its inflexions. But the tense system got more complex. In 1066 during the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror killed the new King Harold Godwinson and became King himself. With this event, the uninflected forms of the French entered the language. English is a hybrid between Germanic and Romanic languages, farmers for example called the animals “cow” (Germanic), but nobles, who spoke French called it “beouf” (Romanic), like in their language; like it is today when talking about “cow” (living animal) and “beef” (food). Also, structure and rhythm changed. However, Latin was the language of prestige. The oldest existing grammar is the “Old English Grammar” in Latin Middle English readers could not understand Old English texts. Middle English became a language of courts and a national language. Medieval romance is very important for literature. Ongoing tradition of epic literature. We see a shift from a communal society towards a more private society. Focus more on the individual. There are adventures and their love lives. OE traditions stay (like Lords, vessels, loyalty) Romance main mode of literature, and also a shift in language: "romance" comes from Romans (French word), a story that is told and written in French and not in Latin!) vassal – warrior and the lord gives him protection Natural and power fantasy. increase in feminine presence; Female role: love, marriage, relationships. Women become the centre of the tension regarding these texts. Women had no autonomy and were not seen as persons till the 19th century. Were property of father/husband, but had power in court, could not New theme: The Lady and her Knight. Taken from French lit. Because women became the prime audience. Poets changed their texts to appeal to women (love is a more interesting topic for women) Eleanor of Aquitaine led patience of the troubadour (old Occitan spelling – language spoken in France, south of the river Louvre – Occitan language was the dominant language and more important than French) /troubadour (French spelling) literature; a troubadour = a person who travels from court to court and sings about love, spiritual love! (Eleanor of Aquitaine was from Western France, introduced her language at court and the idea of “Minnesang”) because of her, Occitan became the dominant language in France; she was a famous patron. Became the most culturally influential person of her time. The Lady = image of virgin Mary. (Christian values and norms) Jean Bodel (late 12th century French poet): classified romances into 3 different kinds: 1. Matter of Britain (Arthur) 2. Matter of Rome (classic antiquity, Greek and Roman mythology e.g. Zeus, Hera..) 3. Matter of France (chanson de Roland) – chanson de geste Very important! French vs. English: English romances were simpler in form and director in address. Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 11 "King Horn" (1225) gets kicked out of the country, by Muslims, (Saracens, Moors = Mauren) Historical Chronicles overlaps with …? (to set dates and festivals like Easter and to record historical events) Middle English Literature “Layamon’s Brut” (12thc.) is the earliest English romance/narrative that celebrates King Arthur and romance motives. heroic narrative (like old English literature) form: metrical chronicle at the same time feels like a romance (motives); French and English literature -> New identity- neither English nor French = Anglo- Norman End-rhyme becomes a thing – a new invention; Rhythm, syllabic… mix of traditions another author wrote "Wace's Brut" early once focused on male things, but moved on to more and more female things In France: chanson de geste, honour, lady in trouble In England: oath-breaking, oath-taking! (when does breaking an oath become the okay value of an oath – strong obsession with this topic) strong continuity: in Layamon's Brut – arming scene (which keeps appearing throughout the centuries in literature), every weapon has a connection to a moment in the past – a connection (also in Beowulf, Parcival..) Same narrative strategies although different cultural backgrounds. Men = are always excellent warriors. New: must be good negotiators too. A good king is a good warrior he must also be able to mediate conflicts, talk and negotiate (new thing!), alliterative revival (Gawain and the Green Knight) “Gawain and the Green Knight” The author must have lived in the second half of the 14th century, fluent in French and English, highly educated; creation of Gawain – alliterative revival!; Gawain opens with the line of British kings, the etymology for Britain is Brutus (false etymology) – the idea was to give Britain more authority, they try to go back into antiquity; Arthur was seen as the perfection of British kings; language sounds more like our English today; Aeneas Brutus (Felix) Britain; Brutus when Troy was defeated; Greeks to the Roman Empire and now they are the new Empire (line of Empire: Greeks Roman Empire Brutus new Empire is Britain) Story: The green knight holds a holy branch that represents life also the horse; the horse and the holly brunch (symbol of Christmas) similes life and the axe death; Celtic and Pagan origin engage in the beheading game, Arthur lets Gawain challenge in the beheading game with the green knight; (the unconquered son!) Gawain has to chop off the head of the green knight, chops it off, the green knight picks off the head and goes with his head in his hands and says he will come back in a year chopping off the head of Gawain; Gawain has to find the knight (Celtic festival Samhain (=Halloween) the dead walk amongst the living, the living light fire and put out food, so the dead have it warm and can eat; spirits of dead come and witness) he goes on his quest on Halloween (31st October =pagan beginning of the year, begins with the fall of night, focus on darkness not on light, came from a world of darkness – all life originates in darkness; order in society.) The Virgin Mary is on the outside of his shield and inside there is a five-star. He wins a magical belt that protects him from dying but he has to give it away as a kind of tradition, but he doesn’t want to give it back because it will protect him against the knight, which is seen as bad behaviour. The green knight tries to get off the head of Gawain and misses him twice, the third time he wounded him on his neck; However, the green knight reveals that he was Garvin’s former lOMoARcPSD|20347401 12 host. Gawain is marked with a sign of un-knightly behaviour. The tradition of hospitality because he kept the belt but he should have given it to someone else; Gawain is excused by the failing of the green knight Solomonic emblem of perfection (five lines of the broken star, generosity, cleanness, curtsey and compassion; pagan tradition – star upside down looks like the devil), 5 coming up all the time; failure makes Gawain discover his humanity, accepted back into the round table, he is only human, human means we fail, acknowledge that he is also only human; even though we are people and we fail we can get to perfection. (only old English literature and middle English literature) The Order of the Garter a garter is used to keep women's stuff in place under their dresses; you cannot be impure as a person per se you can only do things to make you impure Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400) The first poet to be buried in Westminster Abby, poetry - firm belief in order, translated by Chaucer "De Consolatione Philosphiae"; a place for everyone and everyone for this place; "The Canterbury Tales" survives in 98 manuscripts – closer to understandably English The nobility Yeoman – farmers, who owned their own land but they had to fight for their lord (semi-professional soldiers) – Longbow (?) Church – priories, priests and non, and the friar Merchant, widow Chaucer even put himself to his texts, he is the storyteller, put himself last at the scale narrative structure: Boccaccio – Decamerone; each traveller needs to say two tales 1st Merchant’s Tale and the last tale are… nature of the tales are highly different moods and so on all of the stories trigger the next story Chaucer’s 1st tale is the tale of … - someone says his story is boring (in the story) – then he switches to prose (he himself is also present visually in the manuscript) we start in sin and end in purity (absence of sin and presence of god) natural inferiority of women is undermined by very intelligent women – females get the action going Wife of Bath – her stories are based on her own experiences, she knows her shit; she really knows how to do life, makes it through every catastrophe and has a very strong personality ahead of time by 500-600 years critical perspective – comments on things great appreciation of the sources he had used a text that is self-aware Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 13 fist poet in English – negative capability, ability to live with contradiction at the same time, very progressive, the rise of the bourgeoisie no longer talk about knights, now we talk about private lives Standard English emerged! The Chancery An old distinction of thought and thought – no longer made (du – Sie polite address) formal and informal address abounded informal address actually abounded – we actually use the old formal one to address everyone The Great Vowel Shif – pronunciation changed drastically when Chaucer used "knyght" and "nyght" – the k was still pronounced -> then it abounded but not in spelling just in pronunciation; pro. moved on and spelt. stayed the same. Middle Ages and Modern English Literature began writing became more artificial, reading became silent and private before it was spoken and collected in a way; the relationship between the self and the book, society towards a focus on the individual! extremely – libertarian society today (as long as I have my rights, I'm happy) a new form of doing economy becomes important, money became important – before you would swap (vast majority still was exchanging things for things); Irish had a virtual currency – everything they bought or sold was counted in "half-a-cow"; if you have the money you were powerful (also If you have money) Pearl – poem (same manuscript as Sir Gawain) anti-marketing society, you're obliged to your lord, if you go out and work somewhere else collapse economy and society, this is a problem burghers – middle class pay the poets; the rise of education of the middle class, free gentlemen (also in the septem artes liberals) – they don't have to work (=free) total shift at the end of the century – social and economic power (people can rise in society and status will shift – not possible before) In the late 15th century (1455-85) the War of the Roses Houses of Lancaster (red) and York (white) – English rose is the "Tudor rose" (red and white) 200 killed Nobel men, 100,000 normal people killed … (seemed to be a one-to-one source of "Game of Thrones") Henry Tudor (aka Henry VII) After the war – Tudors were connected to the Lancastrians, they took over because there was hardly anyone left standing on the battlefield, he married a woman from York (combined the red and white rose – Tudor Rose) continuation of the empire – Arthur – didn't work out very well (married a Spanish woman), Arthur died, Henry VIII became king, didn't give a shit, and hit others when he felt like it. "Le Morte d'Arthur" – telling title – the death of Arthur! lOMoARcPSD|20347401 14 the author was Thomas Malory – who died in 1491 text the matter of Britain – if you want to have one text of what Arthur is all about, this is the text (all the Arthur legends – collected Romances); William Caxton helped him, together they put this book on the market! Malory wrote all of his texts while he was imprisoned, he was a rapist, thief, and extortionist – the book was published in 1485, Caxton took the original 8 books and divided them into 21 books Henry V aristocracy, society was breaking apart, authors write about "everything was so much better before" very rhythmical English, dialogue Malory's England In Real England and fairytale England, everything goes to shit in the end (nightmares, falling into a deep hole in the woods full of worms…) first text where Guinewia and Landselot did their …?? (just added this because of the courtly scandal) Arthur – comes back to save England (Friedrich Barbarossa – kind of the same, he comes back and saves Germany) idea of a deliverer – locked up in prison during the Civil War Tudors were the ones who were entitled to the throne Elizabeth I – refers to Arthur, refers to Rome to justify Edmund Spenser – wrote "The Fairy Queen" – Alfred Tennyson – 1509 Caxton (printer of Le …) – introduced the printing - New Age Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 15 4. English Renaissance Literature I British Empire=biggest Empire in human history English wouldn’t be a global language today if we hadn’t had the renaissance Renaissance in England: Two turning points: The battle of Bosworth Field 1485 (Richard 3 killed; beginning point of Renaissance – when it ends problem most critics) and the Restoration of the Stuart kings around 1660 (move to next era; ends with the Restoration; only time of all English history where England was a Republic end of republic line between the end of Renaissance and Baroque) England gets to global superpower in the 19th century Renaissance → rebirth; the rediscovery of classical texts of Greeks and Romans; the rebirth of classical knowledge of antiquity Artistic, literal movements originated in Italy (14th century) and were in England at the very end of the 15th century. People neglect the rebirth of knowledge (political, financial reeled small parts where this rebirth of classical knowledge happened (people middle class)), more neutral: Early Modern Era Henry 6. sank to madness; York defeated the House of Roses (War of Roses → white rose (York) and red rose(Lancaster)); Welsh noble Henry Tudor is proclaimed Henry 7 and marries Elisabeth of York (cousin); he unites the house of Lancaster and York to the House of Tudor (red and white rose together); 1502 Arthur (Henry’s oldest son) died and 18 year old Henry 8 succeeded to throne in 1509 (hunting, sexual adventures, eating, drinking) therefore someone else had to rule the country this was Wolsey and Cromwell, then Henry 8 took power failed in military conquest in 1530s he broke away from church and wanted to marry his lover (was a protestant) he created his own church (he would be head of church = Anglican church) because he separated England from the Church or Rome, he used his political power and sold them to people that is how he regained power of England = dissolution of monastery ; he also killed the educational system (cause monasteries educated people); Henry desperately wanted heir Edward 6 he got to the throne aged 9 years (1547) → relatives ruled (he was protestant) he tried to control the economic unrest after selling monasteries, he was much more constraint than his father (he dies in 1553 was ill); Duke of Northumberland selected protestant Lady Jane Grey and forced her to marry his son. She was never crowned queen of England and only ruled for 9 days (therefore called queen of 9 days); Marry became queen of England and lady grey was sent to the tower (but wasn’t immediately executed but after 1 years she was associated against people rebellion against Marry so she was executed)Marry 1 undoubted queen of England 1553 know her as Bloody Marry wanted to re-catholicize England (daughter of Spain Catholic woman) → did everything to reline England with other Catholic areas in Europe ; she prosecuted all people being protestants (around 300) therefore she’s called Bloody Marry; she married King Philip of Spain but didn’t produce kids, she had cancer and died a gruesome and painful death; died in 1558 one air was left cause heir Berlin had one daughter “Elizabeth 1” (protestant) and she got queen wanted to promote political aim of stability and was highly educated, intelligent she was a good political leader and knew how to play people; she didn’t like to spend lots of money; a woman rules a nation and men decided political fates in England; her advices constantly pushed her to marrying (cause women alone can’t run country); she feared her own mortality; around 300 people executed by her but she ruled for a longer time than Mary; Elizabeth was a politician who could rule a country alone not like Mary. she was more concerned with political issues than in private ones they had to contribute to the political wealth of country → care for England, Virgin Queen. lOMoARcPSD|20347401 16 James Stuart and James 6 of Scotland had close relationship with advisers and said they should call when Elizabeth was dead → after she died in 1603 and James (36 years) became king of England personal union between the crown of England and Scotland (James King of both) → he is different of Elizabeth he was a foreigner and Scotland and England aren’t that many friends, English wasn’t used that a country was ruled by a man (before there was a nation mother); he was also king of Ireland (he was busy) war with Spain (cold-hot war), Elizabeth not that good controlling the financial businesses. He created the image of James (the peaceful king “Rex pacificus”) → was a scholar king and highly educated and peace-loving, preferred diplomacy and ended the war of Spain. he had 2 sons → stabilising his rule, he attracted the court of talented people and playing male favourites (not only social but also biological matters) → they are complex/real people. James was successful as a king and only at the end of his reign he slept away from it outbreak of the 30 Years’ War (the worst war in Europe) his 2 sons were not as good as the rulers Charles 1 was sent to the throne a foot taller than he left it, James’s heir Charles was with Hapsburgs and he wanted to rule England the same (one person makes the decisions) in 1524 and tried to rule England like the Habsburgs. Not as easy to pull away monarchy of England he created lots of problems with his style of rulership and he said I am the king and you have to hear to me, he was also obsessed with details; he hired only people who followed one certain branch of religion; Jacob Arminius; Charles tried to re- catholicize England clumsy king; increased taxation, Parliament in Westminster resisted but he resolved Parliament and he introduced Personal Rule (kings rule the country without Parliament); Scots rose up against English and Irish also followed and then English followed rebellion in 1642 English civil war (deep mistrust in political power, monarchy, etc.); Charles moved court to York London wasn’t save then the army of king was defeated and then the army defeated the last west.... House of Commons executed Charles 1 on 30th January Republic for 1st time also called interregnum (1649- 1660) more sovereignty (people get to run the country) then England got kind of dictatorship (Oliver Cromwell ) became non protector of England ran the country and when Richard Cromwell took over it didn’t last long; and then England was reintroduced to a king Charles 2 Restoration of Stuart end of England Renaissance (except for James and Elizabeth everyone fucked up Culture: Humanism leading philosophy of the educated elite in England (originated in the 14th century in Italy); ideas connected to Petrarch (1304-1374) (connected to Renaissance) → slowly these ideas went to England; when the church learned to debate the rediscovery of Greek and Roman texts; middle ages saw god at the centre of human life and renaissance said it was humans who were in the centre of human life. Man (humankind) was the measure of all things (core of this philosophy); classical translation and scriptures measures developed then like the way teaching is done today; people tried to imitate in philosophical, pedagogy and literal culture; many of these people had careers in political and church (bishops, cardinals, etc.); not everyone could read and write in England only a fifth of population could only read or write; education was seen as dangerous for political stability; Francis Bacon (1561-1626) blamed the civil war wanted to stop educating people; until reformation bible was only in Latin (also needed to know Latin) vast majority didn’t had believe in it and this people only knew about it from picture or what others told them; in the 15th century bible was translated to English by William Tyndale (1494-1536); when one of English bible was discovered they were publicly burned, later half of 16th century half a million English bibles and six million people; bible not only holly book but people learned how to read and write with bible (girls only learned how to read; and housework; boys learned reading and writing and mathematics); grammar school in larger cities where they studied literary texts only for rich families religious education boys would study erratic and study Latin and Greek and a composition of both focus Latin and Greek; students had partly scholarships went to Cambridge (like Christopher Mallow) (canon is a very political thing); the “septem artes liberales” Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 17 working as a free man who doesn’t have to work (only men were educated) old Greek ideal of the concept of man: first part trivium (grammar, language), quadrivium (music, mathematics, etc.); in early 16th century about 400 students were part of the University of Cambridge and 100 years later 8000 students each of the universities (lower classes not admitted only middle class got scholarship, and men); talking early modern English (1400-1700); not political part it was Latin; Italian and French were world languages (English not be spoken on continent a lot); English was not the first language of majority or people living in England, large proportion only spoke Cornish (different language family Celtic language), Welsh (dominant in Wales), they forced Welsh to speak English; Irish and Scots Gaelic were suppressed by political measures language created political problems; Scottish Gaelic replaced by Scots (has different roots); Renaissance time of “questione della lingua” status of writing and reading in language (speak in one language, and write in another; pray in one language and talk to woman in another) questions of language people were asking themselves (becoming standard languages, official languages in Europe); more and more words were integrated in English language (need elements to educate language therefore English is a mixture of language Latin words, Italian, etc.) after mess people started to create a standard see movement in England and especially in France (l’academie francaise) dictionaries appear, print culture helped to distribute all of this (promote English language birth of English and beginning of English as world language) Thomas More (1478-1525) Thomas Morus –Latin name; humanist and lawyer’s son (middle-class people), he published in Latin by Erasmus of Rotterdam had to be in Latin in 1501 an English translation followed, “Utopia” means nowhere (Greek) summary: ideal country; Lucian (writer of ); utopia run like a commune, vice unknown, priests, some are female priests, everyone same cloth (everyone is the same); marriage is awesome (you mutually inspect each other in an official place); Christian and feudal England (starving men stealing bread and getting punished); Character Thomas More discuss whether a scholar should advise or not. Moron speaks about how to reign a country rightly; people wouldn’t have time; lots of jokes (perceives irony); more says that it better to be in communism does a lot of irony; it released ideas in European Renaissance to think about things and discuss them and make a compromise; humanists live in choice educated person live in choice create your own mind and make a decision; Thomas More worked as chancellor for lord Henry the 8; more was a catholic and when Henry decided to create own church More left (decided he would rather die than accept Henry 8 he wants to die as king’s good servant but god’s own first) Edmund Spenser (1552- 1599) attended new schools at this time; he translated Joachim du Bellay into English; his first poem was the Shepheard’s Calendar 1579 series of busters, etc.; Spenser was colonist in Ireland; “The Faerie Queene”(1590/1596): book dedicated to queen, she flipped when her favourites had sex with other people of court; when took away warship of her she found sth else; Diana/Artemis etc. used as metaphors of Elizabeth. has the idea of the world as a stage; he wants to get the reader into a trance, dreamlike state, the main strategy: is allegory; the problem: is his texts are very complicated so you can miss meanings; The Faerie Queene: written to glorify Queen Elizabeth; the ideology of queen separated into two people at the same time: as a woman and as a queen; book 2: Sir Guyon represents the virtue of temperance. His major heroic act is destroying the Bower of Bliss controlled by Acrasia; she turns animals into men, and only one pig wants to stay a pig – you have a choice, idea of humanism; The Red Crosse Knight – impersonates England and Holiness; Una impersonates the "True Church". She travels with the Red Cross Knight, whom she has recruited to save her parents' castle from a dragon. She also defeats Duessa. lOMoARcPSD|20347401 18 Philip Sidney (1554-1586) was the superstar at this time; leader of the club Areopagus; he was educated in Oxford and toured Europe for 2 years; he was a Protestant, son of the Governor of Ireland; there was a purpose of the texts he created, he thinks about how to write a text; he wrote Astrophil and Stella, it is a tragic love story, more literal; you can connect Sidney to Astrophil; Astrophil was in love with Stella but she had to marry another man. How do I write a perfect text; “Arcadia” when he was only 25 years old; rewrite Arcadia 1582 and 1584; the version we use today isn’t his text but a version his sister brought out called “The countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia (because she was the countess of Arcadia); Arcadia Greek and Italian, Spanish and French prose acts (poems); Singing contests between Shepheards; my true love has my heart, etc. classics; 2 princesses get shipwrecked (fantastic and tragic elements); good end (princess and shepardesses?; very artificial) text not read that often; “Defence of Poesy” third text (centre of text literature) really isn’t very beautiful but literature makes it beautiful (first classics of English literature critics); Dryden, Johnson, etc. were poems and critics at the same time; the defence of poesy because Gosson attacked him that literature makes people crazy and Sidney came and refused so (it’s full of humour and sprezzatura you needed it to have the seeming effortlessness); interesting than unedifying history; author says that only bad poems are liars and corrupt; English Literature at this time didn’t constantly satisfy Sidney; love, honour and pride doesn’t work that good in real life. Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 19 5. English Renaissance Literature II James I (1566-1625) James I (1603) Upheaval Rex Pacificus, the peaceful king, ended the war with Spain 30 Years War (1618-1648) Charles I (1600 – 1649) Charles I (1625), very personal, Jacob Arminius Personal Rule (1629) English Civil War (1642-1651), 3 nations against their king, The commonwealth Commonwealth (1649) -> Protectorate (1654) Levellers, Diggers Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) Richard Cromwell (1626-1712) George Monck -> Charles II (1660) Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) because Shakespeare learned from him (introduction to Shakespeare) star writer in drama and the Elizabethan age everyone went to see Marlowe’s plays; history wasn’t kind to him (he was born the son of a shoemaker when the university denied him a master of arts then one intervened because of good service to the queen he was a secret agent for someone who was plotting against the queen; from his breakthrough success to his death he only worked for 6 years and this was filled with success; he was about drug, sex and rock’n roll, he was the dirty rock star, he did everything to upset people, he was stabbed in the eye (dispute for paying what he had official dispute), also Thomas Kid wrote stuff like this he was a flatmate of Marlowe he was tortured and the council found writings and accused Marlowe of faithism, etc. although they were from Kid as well. His plays question everything (opposite of Shakespeare), introduce blank verse (iambus) and were golden drama; rhythmic energy in the texts, emotional, surprising his watchers it is very raw (in your face); he was unsuppressed in his control of language was fascinated by forbidden knowledge himself; Tamburlaine the Great story of a ruler of the Mongolian empire (kills everyone and isn’t punished); The tragic history of doctor Faustus one of the most well-known texts; he is a humanist break free of religion and science (This Faustus is about); beginning and end of the play shows how good the author replaces the (good angel and bad evil) at the time people would be shocked by these texts (too raw); Marlowe expresses the desire (whatever makes you feel good this is life) in the play the gay king isn’t the problem but the rest you have no values your standards I tell you what real life is about (this is why we know Shakespeare because he didn’t do all these things) Shakespeare (1564-1616): Wife: Anne Hathaway (1555-1623), Susanna > Hamnet/Juditg (Twins) Lord Chamberlains Men (1594) The Globe (1599) The Kings Men (1603) The Blackfriars (1608) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 20 sonnets (126 were written for a man and only 26 were written for a woman people were shocked about the 26 texts written for a woman; people have these misconceptions. King Lear isn’t the same we were taught in school there’s evil and it’s not punished they win they get what they want the good people are humiliated, and suffer, etc. (this is the Shakespeare where we see Marlow in him; this is where everyone loses; there’s also a dark Shakespeare he’s not the Petrusy of English literature and he is a complex person) 6. Restoration and 18th Century Restoration and Augustan Literature just be familiar with what these texts are about The theatre was the stage for literature. Charles II (1660-1685) imitated French culture, James II (1685-1688) William III (1689-1702) Anne (1702-1714) John Milton (1608-1674) was a Puritan and wrote Paradise Lost in 1667 rewriting the bible; he had a highly religious family; he went to St. Paul’s then to Cambridge University and received private study and travelled Italy and talked about poetry, he was convinced that faith and poetry are combined; his early poems are shaped by humanistic ideas. Due to his excellent early education, he had special facilities in languages such as Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Spanish and French (later on Dutch and Spanish). He made his Master in Arts; he tried various things, that’s why he is a master of forms (he knows what he is doing) right from the beginning nature and art in his first poets (rather joyful) and becomes then a mixture of sober Anglicism and Italianism ; left Church of England because of its lack of reformation and became part of Caroline Church then (Caroline adjective Carolus rule of Charles I North Carolina); he wrote for the court (masks and baroque style oats is associated with Catholicism) and the church; embraced renaissance and reformation but felt in 1630 1637 poem dedicated to a friend, used to talk about the fame of poet, text is used to criticise pastoral care of bishops used conventions to attack the shepherds of his religion (bishops); Milton was very experimental; he published attacking poets on church government, divorce, education, freedom of press, regicide, and republicanism; married girl half his age who returned to her royalist family a few month after the wedding. That’s the reason why he wrote poems about remarrying (a position almost unheard at the time), influenced by his disastrous marriage. During the outbreak of the war, Milton allied himself with the Puritan cause until his death (his family benefited from Europe’s first bourgeois revolution, even though his brother fought on the royalist side) Milton openly attacked the king (defended the decision to execute the king and the revolution itself); Milton asked for a Republic in England; 1660 not perfect moment to establish republic king 16 got killed; wrote tracks, was in parliament was involved in political issues very interested (political animal); his oeuvre Areopagitica (1644) named after Aeropagus; classic of political liberalism (Commonwealth); it’s an impassioned defence of a free press and free commerce in ideas against Parliament determined to restore effective censorship comes to poetry after 1658 he loses his eye sight in 1652 his son and wife; his daughter and his second wife (1558) when he was only 50 years old Downloaded by Ka Hoch ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|20347401 21 he also felt that his political rule had failed because the bishops started ruling the country again (everything he dedicated his life to failed, everything in his life had collapsed); after the Restoration he was given an amnesty by the king Paradise Lost → heroic virtue that follows the Renaissance idea of belief in reason and the didactic role of the world; poem of the language in art, power and scope; humankind’s first obedience; highly inter-textual organised; begins with the fall of angles; book 4 Adam and Eve are warned; book 9 Eve taking the tree of knowledge and Adam decides to die with her (women are an attachment to men); son of God announcing the dome of the world; Satan posting his success books 11, 12 show success and promise of paradise more a heroic poem (ethical text) but Milton choose a domestic couple instead of a martial hero as protagonists. This work also offers a sweeping imaginative vision of Hell, Chaos, and Heaven; prelapsarian life in Eden; the power of the devil’s political rhetoric; the psychology of Satan, Adam, and Eve; and the high drama of the Fall and its aftermath; Adam and Eve -> heroism (think about what they do and take decisions); humanity is ennobled by actions whereas angles are falling; Adams (cosmology, intellect) and Eve (gardening, emotions) relationship not egalitarian, Milton talks about Adam and Eve also about sexual beings; ending leaves Adam and Eve have lost God but they walk through the baron country hand in hand and are together they walk aimlessly and they are free to choose for the first time in human’s existence. Their relationship fulfils them, they obtain a passionate balance. Milton’s Christian humanism depends on reason. Adam chooses to die with her for love and to die for humanity (rationality is about choice and responsibility) following Renaissance ideas and baroque ideas (mixture of emotional impact and rationality) then Restoration of Monarchy happened new temper and new style were introduced; with the king’s return the theatres were reopened (puritans had closed them before); Charles II eagerly worked against the Puritan spirit in Britain (they were taught in France and brought French education to England); Church of England established first scientific association established by the king; theatres and operas established); 1665 the plague stroke London; 1666 Great Fire devastated London (old St. Pauls burned down and collapsed, entire core of London was reshaped using enlightening philosophies) the two catastrophes; London’s society also takes shape; so the two catastrophes were also an opportunity to develop tea, coffee and chocolate, horseracing (part of society) this is the time when they became British; 1688 James II rules for two years and seeks refuge with Louis 14 of France (sun king) when James is kicked out of England he gets to his family in France; in England James was totally useless and was replaced by his daughter Mary who married a noble man called William of Orange (Netherlands) this is Glorious Revolution of 1688; in reaction they excluded Catholics as Catholic you can’t get king; even today when the queen crosses the border from England to Scotland (changes religion from Anglican to Prospitario); monarch limited by Parliament (parliament, commercials restricted power of the king- therefore the monarchy was kind of balanced); was in effect till 1882, 1688-1832 same political power; first it wasn’t politics that made you but your bank account. Until 1700 needed to find a noble who paid them to write and from 1700 on book trade was on; the reading audience changed, and people started to read for fun also women and “no-brainers” read and first woman readers, also journalism began (quality and sensational journalism); system we have today was what they have created; the idea of re-foundation; heroic tragedy current in Restoration was out stressed by the comedy of manners and there is British genre (Jane Austen; Oscar Wilde) Restoration comedy; prose style slowly moved towards more communicative style, everyday language. The authors longed for a bigger audience. Civil secular is often called Augustan (writers peace brought by Augustus ended the Roman Republic), but Charles 1 and 2 weren’t Augustan but they were intelligent; Charles 1 lover of art all these kings believed in peace, order, and refinement (civilized people). The French culture defined English culture until the mid-18th century. lOMoARcPSD|20347401 22 John Bunyan (1628-1688) He’s one of the most remarkable figures at this time. As the son of a poor Bedfordshire tinker (maker and mender of metal pots), he received only meagre schooling. He became a soldier in the Parliament army; and told his convention in 1666 through Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners. He explains he became a good Christian He was imprisoned 2 times but kept writing in prison; The Pilgrim’s Progress: English plain, simple, and pure to save souls; compared to the other poet Piers Ploughman (wrote in comparison to this medieval texts). He hated the theatre. Restoration drama theatres reopened ?

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