Waste Management – Avoidance, Recycling, Disposal PDF 2023

Summer term 2023 — Waste Management – Avoidance, Recycling, Disposal Prof. Dr.-Ing. Matthias Franke Waste Management National Circular Development of waste legislation in Germany Econ...

Summer term 2023 — Waste Management – Avoidance, Recycling, Disposal Prof. Dr.-Ing. Matthias Franke Waste Management National Circular Development of waste legislation in Germany Economy Strategy Resource 2023+ Management Circular Economy Waste Recycling Act Risk Prevention Management Recycling & Waste Act 2012 (1994) Waste Law (1972) R-Strategies Reduce 2010 Re-use Repair 1990 Rethink 1970 Refurbish 1900 Remanufacture Repurpose Waste Disposal Product Resource Efficiency Recycle Waste Disposal Incineration Responsibility Material Recycling Recover Waste Separate Beginning Resource Refuse Incineration Collection Orientation Energy Efficiency Waste Management Legislation in European Union and transfer to Member States Page 3 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Intern Waste Management Legislation in European Union and transfer to Member States EU Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EG EU Landfill Directive 1999/31/EG EU Directive on Waste Incineration 2000/76/ EG EU Packaging Waste Ordinance 1994/62/EG EU End-of-Life Vehicles Directive 2000/53/EG Recycling and Waste Management Act (KrWG, 2012) Landfill Ordinance (DepV, 2009) 17th Federal Emission Control Act (17. BImSchV, 2013) Packaging Waste Ordinance (VerpackV, 1991) End-of-Life Vehicles Ordinance (AltfahrzeugV, 1997) Page 4 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Avoidance of waste generation Page 5 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Page 6 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Page 7 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Avoidance of Waste Production Products Organization Reduction of material and Extension of lifetime and Extension of energy demand useful life reusable systems Page 8 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Avoidance of Waste Service Behaviour Substitution of material by Change of information and Service behaviours Page 9 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer  Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Avoidance Preparation for  Use of „old“ elements Re-Use  Restoration Recycling Other Utilization* Dis- posal *especially energetic utilization and filling Fig.: lendager.com Page 10 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Re-Use No destruction of the product …for the same …for another Purpose Purpose Re-Usable Bottles Mustard jar  Drinking Glass Second-Hand-Goods Shopping Bag  Rubbish Bag Car Tire  Childrens seesaw Fig.: demmelhuber.net; selbststaendig.de Page 11 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer  Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Avoidance Preparation for Re-Use  Production and use of recycled Recycling material, e. g. Recycling-Concrete Other Utilization* Dis- posal *especially energetic utilization and filling Fig.: schwenk.de Page 12 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Material Recycling Destruction of the product …for the same …for another Purpose Purpose Glass from bottles Slag  Additive in the cement production Recycling of paper Low-grade plastics  park benches Page 13 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Feedstock Recycling Destruction of the product Pyrolysis Gasification E. g. cracking of used “Waste to Energy” plastics for generation e. g. Incineration with of hydrocarbons energy-recovery Fig.: umsicht-suro.fraunhofer.de; tu-freiberg.de Page 14 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer  Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Avoidance Preparation for Re-Use Recycling Other  „Not recyclable“ Utilization* E. g. germ-ridden Wood Dis- posal *especially energetic utilization and filling Fig.: zuhause.de Page 15 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Energetic Utilization Mono-Incineration Co-Incineration “Waste to Energy” Refuse Derived Fuels (RDF) e. g. Incineration with e. g. Utilization of RDF in energy-recovery cement plants, blast furnaces or RDF power plants Page 16 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Filling Destruction of the product Landfill construction Backfilling Substitute construction material Backfilling materials e. g. Use of tar containing road e. g. (ultimate) storage of construction waste (hazardous) filter dust in an for landfilling layers old salt stock Page 17 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Fig.: bvse.de; aurec.de Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Avoidance Preparation for Re-Use Recycling Other Utilization* Dis-  Hazardous Waste posal E. g. Asbestos *especially energetic utilization and filling Fig.: selamiengin.com Page 18 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste Management 5-step Waste Hierarchy Disposal Destruction of the product Landfilling Special Waste Incineration Dump Classes (DC) in Germany DC 0 §2 No. 6 Above-ground landfill for inert waste DepV (landfill for construction and demolition debris) DC I §2 No. 8 Above-ground landfill for non-hazardous waste, AbfAblV with a very low percentage of org. matter DC II §2 No. 9 Above-ground landfill for non-hazardous waste AbfAblV with a higher percentage of org. matter than DC I DC III §2 No. 9 Above-ground landfill for hazardous waste DepV DC IV §2 No. 10 Underground disposal facilities DepV Page 19 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer Waste collection and transport Organization Collection Systems Tariff Systems Pick-up system Bringing system Fixed rate Accounting by Waste and/or valuables are Valuables have to be Fee according to number quantity collected directly by taken to recycling points of persons, household Fee according to weight the households or bins or volume  High Quantities High quality and high number of different fractions Simple accounting No incentive to dispose of Incentive for avoidance of waste waste illegal Seems more fairly  Tendency to lower quality Mostly lower quantities No incentive for avoidance of waste Complicated accounting, weighing, volume control necessary Tendency to illegal disposal of waste Waste collection and transport Collection Systems  Pick-up Systems Distance disposal service Distance private persons Collection station / Depot container In general: costs of bringing systems increase with  Bringing Systems increasing stand density of collection points  Cost benefits compared to Pick-Up systems decrease Fig.: Bilitewski et al. 2000 Waste Collection Bringing Systems Dischargeable depot containers Glass Actually best system for glass (quality, colour sorting) Stand density of 500 - 1,000 c/stand Separate containers for white, brown and green glass Paper compared to glass: less effective, higher costs  Lower bulk density Stand density of 500 - 1,000 c/stand Packaging waste Very high costs  Low bulk density, many false throws Waste Collection Bringing Systems Collection stations  Easily monitored (relevant for hazardous and valuable fractions like e-waste)  Labour-intensive  expensive  Good separation results Special waste collection points Stationary: often integrated in collection stations Mobil Return systems Normally at collection stations E-waste, pharmaceutics, waste oil, batteries At business sites (place of sale) E-waste, waste oil, batteries Specialized companies End-of-Life vehicles Waste Collection Pick-up Systems Separate collection of waste fractions at the place of origin Separation quality depends on the population  information necessary Separate collection and transports to the treatment  infrastructure necessary Examples:  Kitchens / canteens: 2 - 3 waste bins necessary (organics, plastic packaging, paper)  Industry site: separation of hazardous waste (different?), recyclables (different!), residual waste  Construction site: different recyclables (wood, paper, plastics, …) and residuals waste streams (mineral waste by dump classes; residual waste for incineration Waste Collection Pick-up Systems –types of collection  Integrated  Recyclables and residual waste are collected together in one or more bins  Collection is done with the same vehicle  Alternating or partly integrated  Recyclables and residual waste are collected separately in one or more bins  Collection is done in different tours  e. g. residual waste in weeks with even numbers; residual waste in weeks with odd numbers  Additive  Additional collection of recyclables in separate vehicles and bins (not alternating)  e. g. bulky waste  One-Fraction-Collection  Collection of one single pre-sorted fraction from one bin  e. g. glass / paper from depot containers  Combined collection  Recyclables and residual waste are collected separately in one or more bins  Collection is done in one tour with a multi-chamber vehicle  e. g. packaging / glass in different bags  Mixed collection  Joint collection of different recyclables (subsequent sorting)  e. g. yellow bin / bag for packaging Waste Collection Pick-up Systems –types of collection Systemized collection and transport Special vehicles infrastructure for Intermediate container intermediate containers Returnable container One-way-system (mainly bags) Collection and transport without system one-way-system returnable containers (packaging) No special vehicle infrastructure Bulky waste Sometimes paper (with cords), green waste collection without system (bulky waste) Waste Collection Collection vehicles I  Collection vehicles I  Rear Loaders (intermediate containers & one-way systems)  Standard, highest press power possible (bulky waste)  Rotation press (lowest costs), homogenization (organic waste)  Multi-chamber  2 workers: driver + collector  Side Loaders (containers only)  Low costs (1 worker: driver)  Requirements: free streets, bins directly at the street  Front Loaders (containers only)  Low costs (1 worker: driver)  Specially for industrial applications (large intermediate containers) Fig.: faun.com Waste Collection Collection vehicles II  Skiploaders (figures left)  (1,5) 5 - 15 (20) m³  Available with cap (rain, data security)  Hookloaders (figures right)  6 - 40 m³  Long distance transportation  Fast loading and deloading  Various special forms / uses Fig.: palfinger.com; fahrzeugbau-parkentin.de; wikimedia.org Waste transfer stations for long distance transport Example from Tunisia Example from Tunisia (Kram)  Transfer of mixed household waste  Whole area: 5,200 m² (roofing: 1,200 m²)  3 trasnfer areas  65 Mg of waste between 7:00 a.m. and 07:00 p.m. can be reloaded In general  Combination with simple sorting possible  Compaction possible (e. g. in sea containers) Fig.: ANGed Waste transfer stations for long distance transport Example from Schwandorf (Bavaria) Principle of a road to rail reloading station connected to a MSW incineration plant Fig.: Fraunhofer UMSICHT Classification of Waste European List of Waste  Example 2: Discarded electrical and electronic equipment 1) Municipal Wastes  20 01 35*, 20 01 36 2) Wastes not otherwise specified in the list  Chapter 16  16 02 Waste from electrical and electronic equipment 16 02 09* transformers and capacitors containing PCBs 16 02 10* discarded equipment containing or contaminated by PCBs other than those mentioned in 16 02 09 16 02 11* Recycling of Waste discarded equipment containing chlorofluorocarbons, HCFC, HFC 16 02 12* discarded equipment containing free asbestos … 16 02 16 components removed from discarded equipment other than those mentioned in 16 02 15  Waste Recycling Avoidance Preparation for Re-Use  Production and use of recycled Recycling material, e. g. Recycling-Concrete Other Utilization* Dis- posal Fig.: schwenk.de *especially energetic utilization and filling  Waste Recycling Packaging materials Recycling in Germany 9 Paper, cardboard 41.9 % 8 Wood 7 Packaging waste in Germany (in Mio. Mg) Plastics* 6 Glass 5 Steel, 4 tinplates / 17.8 % 17.2 % -sheets* 3 Beverage composite board** 15.4 % 2 Aluminium* 4.5 % 1 others 2.4 % 0 0.7 % Source: UBA 2021 Fig.: DSD AG Waste Recycling Paper and Cardboard Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Development of paper consumption and recycling  Paper consumption in Germany between 25.000 100 18 and 20 million tonnes per yearWaste 90  paper volume through optimised 20.000 80 70 collection relatively constant at approx. 15 15.000 60 million tonnes per year 50  Per capita consumption of Paper and 10.000 40 cardboard in 2020 ~ 219 kg (households 30 and industry) 5.000 20 10  Per capita consumption of P&C by private 0 0 households ~ 105 kg 1990 1995 2000 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020  Steadily increasing recovered paper Paper consumption Tsd. t Waste papaer amounts Tsd. t recycling rate due to improved Altpapierverwertungsquote3) % reprocessing processes (92.6 % in 2020)  Recovered paper input ratio (in relation to Development of paper consumption, waste paper generation and recycling production volume)  79.2 % in 2020 rates in Germany (Federal Environment Agency 2022) Seite 35 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard The material cycle 7. Endproducts (recycling 1. Collection of e.g. paper, e.g. newspaper, newspaper and envelopes, etc. cardboard in paper bin 6. Processing of fibre pulp with fresh fibres 2. Sorting by paper types in sorting plants 5. Liberation from 4. Pulping with 3. Pressing to missmatches water paper bales Material cycle and process steps of waste paper recycling (Berliner Stadtreinigung ) Seite 36 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB  Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Collection Systems Commercial Collection Containers Municipal Collection Systems Bild: UT Umwelttechnik Wertstoffhof Abfallwirtschaftsbetrieb München Seite 37 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling von Papier, Pappe und Kartonagen Papiersorten  In the EU 67 waste paper types are Paper type Nr. Definition defined 1. Lower variety 1.01 Unsorted mixed waste paper  Types are summed up to 5 classes 1.04 Packagings from paper and cardboard  Table shows examples of 67 types 1.07 Phone books 2. Middle variety 2.01 News papers 2.05 Office paper 3. Better variety 3.14 White News paper White paper 4. Strong varieties 4.01 Unused cardboard 4.07 Unused stron paper 5. Special varieties 5.01 Waste paper mixed (types 1-5) 5.03 Used baverage cartons Source: modifified acc. to Martens, M. 2011 (Recyclingtechnik) Seite 38 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Processing steps 1. Dry sorting of collected papers Process steps of an automatic sorting plant  Material separation  Coarse screening (300 mm) for separating large cardboards  Fine screening (100 mm) for separating mixed paper  Near infrared sorting (NIR) with image processing  Blow-out unit for contaminants and undesirable paper grades  Manual re-sorting at the reading belt  Paper press for the production of Ballenware  waste paper grades for wet processing Waste paper sorting plant 70.000 t/a (Bild: Datarec AG) Seite 39 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Processing steps 2. Wet treatment Waste paper types  Disintegration of the waste paper into individual fibres by water and mechanical stress Dissolution / Pulping (agitator, rotary drum) Missmatches  Separation of paper additives and foreign Sorting (Foreig bodies separation) NaOH, matter by wet sorting processes Fatty acids Rejects, Sand, Glas, Glue, Flotation / Deinking Plastics, Wood Chemicals Deinking- Dispersion / Bleaching sludge H2O2 Source: modified acc. to Martens, M. 2011 (Recyclingtechnik) Secondary fibre suspension Seite 40 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Process steps Wet treatment: Dissolution and Pulping – the Pulper  Production of a pumpable medium (consistency 6-19 %)  Avoidance of comminution of impurities  Pulper consists of rotor and impact edges  Disintegration by external (fibres against impact edges) and internal (fibre-fibre friction) shear forces  Discharge of impurities such as foils and wires via pigtail winch  Good material discharge via sieve Source: https://papier-machen.de , Seite 41 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Process steps Wet treatment: Sorting v Density sorter r Fz  Cyclones remove impurities that are m specifically heavier than fibres  Centrifugal force carries heavy particles outwards and they are discharged downwards  Lightweight particles are discharged upwards in the vortex core Fz Centrifugal Force [N] m Mass [kg] v Velocity [m/s] r Radius Design and function of a hydrocyclone a Acceleration (AKW Apparate und Verfahren ) Seite 42 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Process steps Wet separation: Sorting Pressure sorters  Pressure screens remove materials that are specifically larger than fibres (plastic particles, plastics, staples, etc.)  Design: Slotted or perforated screening drum with rotating vane rotor 1 = Screen basket  Hole width: 1-2 mm 2 = rotating sorting wing  Slot width: 0.35-1 mm 3 = Sorting effect by over pressure before wing 4 = Screen cleaning by negative pressure  Material flow enters screen basket; good material passes through screen basket; Design and function of a pressure sorter reject is discharged Source: https://papier-machen.de Seite 43 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Process steps Wet treatment: Sorting Flotation / Deinking Deinking foam  Printing inks influence paper whiteness  Flotation removes printing inks selectively; fillers and fines are retained Air  Ink detached from fibre by dispersing agent or NaOH addition Fibre (softening of binder between fibre and ink)  Adhesion of hydrophobic printing inks to air bubbles  Discharge of printing inks via flotation foam Ink particles  Fatty acids as collectors of the printing inks Deinking by flotation (Viaprinto) Seite 44 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Process steps Wet treatment; Sorting Dispersion  Dissolving the ink from the fibres and breaking it down below the visibility limit (< 40 µm) Peripheral speed  Addition of oxidative bleaching agents 7 – 13 m/s  Operating temperature ~ 80-140°C Peripheral speed  Disc dispersion leads to fibrillation of the fibres 50 – 6ß m/s Strength increase  Kneading disperger leads to fibre crimp Increased softness for tissue productionLösung der Disc disperger Kneading disperger Quelle: https://papier-machen.de Seite 45 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard The Paper prroduction machine Schematic view of the assemblies of a paper machine (Association of the Paper Industry) Source: https://papier-machen.de Seite 46 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Sustainability aspects  Paper recycling contributes to resource conservation Rawmaterial and Recycling paper Fresh fibre (wood, water) as well as energy savings and energy demand 500 sheets paper 500 reduction of CO2 emissions sheets  Fibre recycling leads to shortening of the fibres Waste paper [kg] 2,8 - Fibre strength decreases Wood [kg] - 7,5 max. 5 to 8 recycling cycles are possible Water [Liter] 51,1 130,2  Depending on paper requirements limitation of secondary fibre content Energy [kWh] 10,5 26,8 CO2-Emissions [kg] 2,2 2,6 Quelle: Martens, H. 2011 Seite 47 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Global material flow analysis Recycling potential: +79 % (154 Mio. Mg / 194 Mio. Mg) Potential recyclates: 47 % of Input (369 Mio. Mg / 781 Mio. Mg) Fig.: van Ewijk et al. (2017) Seite 48 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer VRB Recycling of Paper and Cardboard Beverage Cartons Joint recycling with paper and cardboards Theoretical 100 % recycling possible Reality 45) Electrical/ HDPE Thermosets (>10) Mt Electronical Other Plastic types and variety Consumer PVC PVC Elastomers (>25) Products LDPE, LLDPE SA Construction Shredder residues 193 HDPE Sorting residues Clothing Mt LDPE, Heterogenity PUR 2019 2060 LLDPE Mixed plastic waste Multi-Layers PS Other PP Source: OECD 2022 - Informationsklassifizierung - Plastics Recycling – Example Leight weight packagings Status quo: Plastics Production, Waste Amounts, Utilization and Reclate Application 4.369 3.081 Energetic utilization 1.498 Utilization outside Packaging sector 399 Utilization inside Packaging sector Production Waste Recycling Recyclate Source: Conversio 2019; 2020 Seite 70 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer CCPE - Informationsklassifizierung - Plastics Utilization Production, Waste generation & Recyclate use by application (Germany) Production Waste generation Recyclate use*) Recyclate use*) 0 5000 0 2000 4000 0 2000 4000 0 50 100 Packaging 4,369 3,160 474 10.8 Construction 3,583 522 834 23.3 Automotive 1,509 233 83 5.5 Electric 881 316 31 3.5 Household 464 1,000 t/y 169 1,000 t/y 10 1,000 t/y 2.2 % Furniture 456 21 4.6 Agriculture 586 295 214 36.5 Medical 271 Misc. 2,116 651 277 13.1 *) Share of recyclate in new goods Source: Conversio 2020 Page 71 © Fraunhofer Plastics Utilization Types and amounts of plastics by branches Source: Conversio 2020 Page 72 © Fraunhofer Plastics Utilization Collection, Treatment and Utilization of Post Consumer Plastic Waste Share of post-consumer recyclates in 5.35 3.25 German Plastics production Virgin Material 12.29 Mio. t 7.2 % Mio. tons 0.72 0.3 1.02 Post-Consumer Energetic Material Process Post- Plastic Waste Utilization Utilization losses Consumer abroad Recyclate Source: Conversio 2020 Page 73 © Fraunhofer Plastics Utilization Collection, Treatment and Utilization of Post Consumer Plastic Waste Miscellaneous* 5.35 3.25 Agriculture* Household* Electronics* Automotive* Mio. tons Construction* Packaging* 0.72 0.3 1.02 Post-Consumer Energetic Material Process Post- Plastic Waste Utilization Utilization losses Consumer abroad Recyclate *) Share of waste stream calculated based on Conversio 2019 Source: Conversio 2019; 2020 Page 74 © Fraunhofer Recycling - Plastics Recycling of plastics – backround information (EU 2018) 51.2 Mio. Mg virgin material 3.98 Mio. Mg recyclates (7.2 %) Virgin: 56.1 Mio. Mg Total: 61 Mio. Mg 4.9 25,8 % of waste collected 13,5 % of plastic consumed Fig.: Plastics Europe 2020 Page 75 International © Fraunhofer Waste Management – Summer Term 2021 – Tuesday, 11 July 2023 Recycling - Plastics Plastics treatment technoligies (theory) Fig.: Plastics Europe 2020 Page 76 International © Fraunhofer Waste Management – Summer Term 2021 – Tuesday, 11 July 2023 Recycling - Plastics Plastics treatment technoligies (practice) Fig.: Plastics Europe 2020 Page 77 International © Fraunhofer Waste Management – Summer Term 2021 – Tuesday, 11 July 2023  Recycling - Plastics Plastics treatment technoligies (practice) What are the obstacles and challenges of plastic recycling? Fig.: DSD AG Page 78 International © Fraunhofer Waste Management – Summer Term 2021 – Tuesday, 11 July 2023 Plastics Recycling Reasons for exclusion of plastics from mechanical recycling Not suitable for mechanical recycling Duroplastics / Elastomers Glass-fibre re-inforced plastics (e.g. rotor blades) Polyesters Carbon-fibre re-inforced plastics (e.g. aviation, automotive) Epoxy resins Foams (e.g. matresses, heat insulation, sponges Formaledhyde resins Textiles, Fleeces Polyurethane Limited suitable for mechanical recycling Flame retarded plastics / PoP*-Containing plastics Contaminated plastics Multi-Layer Plastics Heterogeneous mixtures Sorting residues Hazardous Wastes Mixed Plastic Waste Multi-Material Shredder residues (e.g. WEEE**, Automotive) *) PoP: Persitent organic Pollutants**) WEEE: Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment Page 79 © Fraunhofer Plastics Recycling Reasons for exclusion of plastics from mechanical recycling Thermoplastics Thermosets Recycling of plastics – Obstacles & Challenges I PVC PBT Resins Resins ABS, HIPS-ABS Fiber reinforced PVDF Two fundamental different groups of plastics PC, PMMA, SAN PU-Foam  Thermoplastics are recyclable  Thermosets are not recyclable (mechanically) There is no major polymer – rather, a huge number of polymers can be found Page 80 International © Fraunhofer Waste Management – Summer Term 2021 – Tuesday, 11 July 2023 Plastics Recycling Obstacles and challenges Recycling of plastics – Obstacles & Challenges II Problem: Multilayer packaging Fig.: ptpackaging.com.au; drug-dev.com; polymerinnovationblog.com Page 81 International © Fraunhofer Waste Management – Summer Term 2021 – Tuesday, 11 July 2023 Plastics Recycling Obstacles and challenges Additives Many additives are harmful and therefore prohibited However, they are and will be found in waste for many years Example: Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR) Deca-BDE  persistent organic pollutant (POP), suspected to be toxic HBCD  persistent organic pollutant (POP), damage to embryonic and baby development Example: Plasticizers Different phthalates (DEHP, BBP, DBP, DIBP)  negative health effect, reproductive toxicity Even when a simple / manual sorting is effective, there is no guarantee for a discharge of these compounds No commitment for marking / labelling Page 82 International © Fraunhofer Waste Management – Summer Term 2021 – Tuesday, 11 July 2023  Plastics Recycling Obstacles and challenges Additives – Impact on recycling Additives change the purity of polymers In case of POP1 additives (e. g. PCB), purities are changed for many years (ever?) Compounding of new plastics is more difficult (and expensive) Polychlorinated Biphenyls Additives can change fundamental properties, which are important for sorting Additives for colours  black plastics cannot be sorted using common NIR2 technology Additives like fibres, flame retardants, and fillers increase specific densities  important for many sorting steps Formation of highly toxic compounds Black vs. transparent plastics from brominated flame retardants Mechanical and thermal recycling can cause the formation of highly toxic (polybrominated-dibenzo-p-) dioxins and furans Additives in polymers are important, however they hinder an efficient recycling 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p- 1 POP: Persistent Organic Pollutants | 2 NIR: Near Infrared dioxin Fig.: dm.de; avivamed.de Page 83 © Fraunhofer  Plastics Recycling Separation Segmenting of mixed waste (e. g. packaging waste) Non-Ferrous metals Ferrous metals Separation by electric conductivity (density) Separation by magnets Materials: Al, Cu, … Materials: Fe, Ni, Co Eddy-Current separator Electric conductivity Electric conductivity Overhead magnet (vertical) Overhead magnet (linear) Magnet roll Material Material (m² 10³ / Ω kg) (m² 10³ / Ω kg) Aluminium 13 Brass 1.8 Magnesium 12 Nickel 1.3 Copper 7 Tin 1.2 Al alloys 5 … 12 Lead 1.0 Zinc 2.4 Iron, Steel, 1.0 … 1.3 alloyed steel Gold 2.3 Fig.: goudsmitmagnets.com; ffag.ch; magsy.eu; gießereilexikon.com Source: Martens, Goldmann 2016 Page 84 © Fraunhofer  Plastics Recycling Separation @ Separation by density Rising-current separator Hydrocyclone Fig.: Reuter et al. 2013 Heavy-medium separator Page 85 © Fraunhofer Plastics Recycling Separation Manual sorting Automatic sorting Recycling of plastics – Sorting Effective sorting is the key technology for plastic recycling Basics Identification of characteristics like Identification of features size, shape, colour, surface, text prints, … e. g. infrared-reflexion of surfaces Fig.: abfallberatung-unterfranken.de; recyclingmagazin.de Page 86 © Fraunhofer Plastics Recycling Separation Automatic sorting One valve block Two valve blocks (Homogeneous) particle separation necessary No overlap No sheets, no light materials 1 Min. >20 mm 1 Max. 250 x 250 mm R 2 High speed: conveyor belt 3 m/s Feasible criteria: Scan: colour, transparency, gloss, geometry NIR1: light absorption (polymers) Induction: el. conductivity (metals, stainless steel) X-Ray TM2: density (stones, glass, metals, wood, …) 1 Example: Baggage scanners at airports 1 R R 2 X-Ray F3 : fluorescence radiation (glass, ceramics, minerals) 1 NIR: Near Infrared | 2 TM: transmission | 3 F: fluorescence Fig.: Titech 2005 Page 87 © Fraunhofer Plastics Recycling Separation Sorting of polymers using NIR Emitted light is absorbed by material, which should be sorted, in a specific wave length Depending on the material, non-absorbed wave lengths are reflected Absorption A detector of the sorting machine measure these wave lengths No detection of black materials  full absorption / no reflection No clear signal for multilayers  residuals / impurities Input Wave length (in nm) Process picture Fig.: LLA Instruments; plastverarbeiter.de Page 88 © Fraunhofer  Plastics Recycling Recycling of plastics – conclusions & take-away-messages Main obstacles for an effective plastic recycling are Large number of different polymers Large number of additives (many of them are dangerous / harmful) Quality of polymers decrease strongly by every recycling cycle* PE: max. 5 … 10 PP: max. 5 PS: max. 9 PET max. 2…3 Separation of non-plastics (e. g. aluminium cap, paper) and plastics (e. g. yoghurt pot) Separation of polymer mixtures (e.g. plastic sheets from plastic tray) Separate collection of recyclables (e. g. plastics) from waste (e. g. absorbing inlay) Avoidance of plastic products (e. g. multi-cycle system)  Avoidance of black plastics and multilayers *Source: Schyns, Shaver 2021 Fig.: merkur.de; dm.de; avivamed.de; andechser-natur.de) Page 89 © Fraunhofer Advanced Plastics Recycling Overview Material Recycling Advanced Recycling Mechanical Solvent based Recycling Recycling Solvolysis Pyrolysis Gasification Polymere Monomers Oil, Gas, Solids Syngas Seite 90 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer CCPE - Informationsklassifizierung - Plastics Recycling Solvent based Recycling Solvent based Recycling Selective recovery of individual polymer types from plastic mixtures and multi-layers Advantages © Mara D'Alò Fonseca  High polymer selectivity (e.g. PP, PE, PA, PS)  Seperation of impurities possible  No repolymerization required Solvent based Recycling  Low Carbon losses CreaSolv©-Process (Fraunhofer IVV) Disadvantages  Solvent separation and purification  Limitation in heterogeneous mixtures with low target polymer concentration Seite 91 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer CCPE - Informationsklassifizierung - Plastics Recycling Solvolysis Solvolysis Depolymerization with suitable solvent. Selective recovery of monomers from conden- sation / addition polymers (PU, PA, PET, PLA) Advantages © Rampf-Group  High selectivity  High yields and purity Solvolysis  Low Carbon losses Solvolysis Process (Fraunhofer ICT) Disadvantages  Solvent separation and purification  Limitation in highly heterogeneous mixtures (particularly contaminated) Seite 92 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer CCPE - Informationsklassifizierung - Plastics Recycling Pyrolysis Pyrolysis Thermo-chemical conversion under inert atmosphere (endothermic). Decomposition of polymers into oil, gas and solids. Recovery of monomers from mixed © Fraunhofer UMSICHT contaminated feedstocks. Advantages  High Feedstock flexibility Pyrolysis  Robust against contaminants (w/o catalyst) iCycle©-Process - Pyrolysis Demonstration Unit  Contains valuable chemicals (Fraunhofer UMSICHT) Disadvantages  Wide range of products (w/o catalyst)  Extensive product refinement required  Limited scalability  Carbon losses (gaseous, solid) Seite 93 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer CCPE - Informationsklassifizierung - Plastics Recycling Gasification Gasification Thermo-chemical conversion under partial oxidation (exothermic) with oxygen or steam. Production of Syngas (CO, H2) and CH4 from plastic waste. Advantages  Most flexible reg. feedstock characteristics  Versatile applicable product Gasification  Most developed technology Gasification-Process (Fraunhofer IKTS)  Good scalability Disadvantages  Most degraded, low-molecular products  Highest effort for re-synthesis of plastics  High effort for synthesis gas cleaning  Carbon losses Seite 94 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer CCPE - Informationsklassifizierung - Plastics Recycling Mechanical and chemical recycling in the plastics production value chain Energy demand product manufacturing Application range of recyclates Gasification Pyrolysis (Naphta) Solvolysis/ Pyrolysis (Aromatics) Solvent based purification Mechanical Recycling Crude Oil Refinery Cracker Polymerisation Compounding Production Use EoL Seite 95 11.07.2023 © Fraunhofer CCPE - Informationsklassifizierung - Advanced Recycling State of development – pre-commercial and commercial scale 60 60 50 50 40 40 Composites / WEEE