2024 PSY1APP Week 4 - Stress and Coping Lecture Notes PDF

Stress and Coping A/Prof Carina Chan [email protected] Week 4 PSY1APP This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC Learning Objectives 1. Describe the different conceptualizations of stress and the st...

Stress and Coping A/Prof Carina Chan [email protected] Week 4 PSY1APP This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC Learning Objectives 1. Describe the different conceptualizations of stress and the stress response. 2. Summarize the relationship between stress and health. 3. Understand and apply the Stress and Coping model and define its components. 4. Identify different coping techniques and differentiate between problem focused and emotional focused coping. 5. Define positive stress and cognitive reappraisal. STRESSstressSTRESSstressSTRESS stressSTRESSstressSTRESSstressSTRESS STRESSstressSTRESSstressSTRESS stressSTRESSstressSTRESSstressSTRESS STRESSstressSTRESSstressSTRESS stressSTRESSstressSTRESS STRESSstressSTRESSstressSTRESS stressSTRESSstressSTRESS STRESS stress stress STRESSstress STRESSstressSTRESS Stress “If you’re a normal mammal, what stress is about is three minutes of screaming terror, after which either it’s over with, or you’re over with” Robert Sapolsky Dr. Robert Sapolsky - Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers - YouTube  What is Stress? Stress has been conceptualized in many different ways. Hans Selye’s original definition: "A set of bodily defenses against harmful stimuli” General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): ▪ Describes the body’s short- and long-term response to stress ▪ It’s derived from Cannon’s “fight or flight” response and, ▪ The concept of homeostasis Stress Response Sympathetic-Adreno-Medullary System (SAM): ▪ Epinephrine and norepinephrine- heart; pupils; large muscles; gastrointestinal Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA): ▪ Cortico-steroid hormones mobilise energy resources, reduce inflammation in case of injury (but also suppress the immune response) General Adaptation Syndrome Phase 1 Alarm: The first reaction to stress. Resources are mobilised -  heart rate, respiration, perspiration,  blood to voluntary muscles, stress hormones released. Phase 2 Resistance: Body copes with the stressor - bodily adaptation: normal respiration and heart rate but glucose levels and some stress hormones high Phase 3 Exhaustion: Reserves become depleted - Increased vulnerability to infection/disease, decreased stress tolerance, fatigue. Does Sex Moderate the Stress Response? Cannon’s fight-or-flight response. oxytocin Sex Stressor Fight/Flight Researchers have avoided using women in their studies Women and men often respond differently to stressors ▪ It is possible that the release of oxytocin during social stress encourages women to affiliate with, or befriend, others (Taylor, Saphire-Bernstein, & Seeman, 2010) Stressor Tend-and-befriend response Selye criticised because… We now know different stressors result in different responses His model ignores individual role of cognitive appraisal, (what people think of their situation) Transactional model of stress emphasises cognitive appraisal as a moderator of the effects of a stressor Primary appraisal - assessment of harm (damage already done) and threat (possible future damage). Secondary appraisal - evaluation of resources and re-evaluation of situation. The Stress and Coping Model Transactional Stress/Coping Model Developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984). Source: Schuster, Hammitt, & Moore, 2006.  Stress Re-defined Stress is “a particular relationship between the person and an environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being” (Lazarus & Folkman)  Chronic Stress Chronic stress broadly encompasses a variety of difficulties and conditions, varying in form and severity. These difficulties may be a big event that has long lasting effects, or repeated hassles that cause a prolonged stress response. Chronic stress impacts physiological systems differently to acute stress. ▪ For example, a flattened diurnal cortisol response, impaired immunity. Photo by Jeppe Hove Jensen on Unsplash  Direct stress-induced physiological changes SAM effects the cardiovascular system HPA suppression of the immune system – psycho-neuro-immunology Role of the immune system is to eradicate bacteria, & viruses, eliminate abnormal cells, and facilitate repair of damaged tissues; Prolonged stress reduces immune functioning leaving individual susceptible to disease and chronic illness. Immune System Effects Prolonged stress reduces immune functioning. ▪ Healthy volunteers had cold viruses swabbed into their noses. Those who reported the highest levels of stress prior to exposure developed worse cold symptoms than those who reported being less stressed (Cohen et al., 1991). Effects on Cardiovascular Health Stress has a direct effect on cardiovascular health through increased blood pressure and decreased heart-rate variability. Sustained release of cortisol can also lead to a buildup of plaque on artery walls Therefore, chronic stress is associated with a number of conditions, including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and coronary heart disease. Greater stress reactivity and dispositional characteristics, such as hostility are associated with a greater risk of poor cardiovascular health. Stress and Mental Health Chronic stress has consistently been linked to poorer mental health and wellbeing. Increased stress is associated with mood disorders, such as major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders. Stress is also associated with increased relapses for people diagnosed with mood disorders, such as bipolar disorder, and people with substance abuse issues. The Vulnerability-Stress-Coping model can help to explain how this occurs. There is a relationship between stress hormones such as cortisol and mental health outcomes, however these are yet to be fully understood in the literature. Image source: https://www.effectiveliving.com.au/what-causes-psychosis/ Stress and Health Stress is also associated with a number of other health conditions including: ▪ Sleep disturbances ▪ Gastrointestinal issues ▪ Metabolic syndrome ▪ Memory and other cognitive impairment ▪ Diabetes mellitus ▪ Musculoskeletal disorders ▪ Rheumatoid arthritis Indirect Effects of Stress on Health Stress is also associated with a number of health behaviours that can increase the risk of different illnesses, such as: ▪ Poorer diet and eating habits ▪ Decreased exercise ▪ Smoking ▪ Alcohol consumption ▪ A decrease in self-care activities and other health promoting activities The Role of Appraisals Appraisal Response Threat: “Yikes! This is Panic, freeze up beyond me!” Stressful event: (tough psych quiz) Challenge: “I’ve got a chance Aroused, focused to apply all I know” The Role of Emotions We know that how we perceive a stressor impacts on our response to the stressor. Emotional responses can also impact on the physiological reactions to stress. For example, negative affect (e.g., anxious or depressive mood states) has been found to moderate the relationship between stress and ill-health. The type of stressor may also influence the physiological response. For example, social stressors are associated with greater cortisol release. However, research in this area is inconsistent. Photo by Tengyart on Unsplash Positive Stress and Cognitive Reappraisal Positive stress or eustress is a positive cognitive response to a stressor and is associated with positive feelings and a healthy state. A clear distinction between eustress and distress is that eustress leads to adaptation. Cognitive reappraisal can change how we respond to a stressor. ▪ Downward comparisons ▪ Giving positive meanings to everyday events ▪ Switching the focus to personal growth ▪ Changing priorities  Hardiness Hardiness is considered a personality trait and is thought to be a protective factor against stress. Hardy people are capable of adapting to life changes by viewing events more constructively (Kobasa, 1979). It incorporates three elements: Commitment – the tendency to see the world as interesting and meaningful Control – belief that one has control or influence over events Challenge – seeing change and new experiences as exciting opportunities to learn and develop Hardy people show greater emotional flexibility and recover quicker from threats (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). People can learn to become more resilient – e.g. regulation of positive and negative emotions  Locus of Control Locus of control refers to the degree to which individuals believe they have control over events in their lives. ▪ Internal locus of control – perceive events as contingent on their own behaviour ▪ External locus of control – perceive events as outside of their control (due to luck, chance or the control of powerful others) Increased external locus of control is associated with increased stress and poorer health outcomes. While increased internal locus of control is associated with lower levels of stress. Maladaptive locus of control is also associated with maladaptive coping and poorer mental health While adaptive locus of control is associated with adaptive coping and improved mental health.  The Role of Coping Coping is a reaction to the circumstances of a stressor and the emotions it produces. Folkman and Lazarus’ (1988) two general coping categories: ▪ Emotion-focused coping: a type of coping in which people try to prevent having an emotional response to a stressor ▪ Problem-focused coping: a type of coping in which people take direct steps to confront or minimize a stressor ▪ Most people report using both emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping ‘‘Problems are not the problem; coping is the problem.’’ Virginia Satir  Adaptive Coping Adaptive mechanisms are constructive and help people to manage stress. Adaptive coping typically uses approach strategies People using adaptive coping will actively try to change the problem or regulate their emotions. For example, through, ▪ Attempting to solve the problem ▪ Seeking support ▪ Using humour ▪ Positive or cognitive reappraisal ▪ Strategies to promote greater self regulation, e.g., mindfulness, acceptance, pausing) Adaptive coping is associated with better psychological Photo by Max van den Oetelaar on Unsplash and physical health outcomes. Maladaptive Coping Maladaptive coping are typically counterproductive or lead to negative outcomes. This type of coping is associated with more avoidant strategies, which can help in the short-term but do little to address the stressor. Avoidant coping is also associated with poorer physical and mental health. For example: ▪ Distractions (drinking and substance use) ▪ Denial or distancing ▪ Suppression of emotions Maladaptive coping can also include repetitive thought or perseverative cognition, such as worry and rumination, which are both associated with poorer physiological regulation, and greater risk of ill-health. Next Week Working in multidisciplinary teams  Thank you latrobe.edu.au La Trobe University CRICOS Provider Code Number 00115M © Copyright La Trobe University 2020