Brunei Social, Economic and Political Conditions in the 19th Century PDF

**CHAPTER 1: THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN BRUNEI IN THE 19^TH^ CENTURY** **[Chapter 1.1: The System of Governance]** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **The Role of | | | | | the Sultan*...

**CHAPTER 1: THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN BRUNEI IN THE 19^TH^ CENTURY** **[Chapter 1.1: The System of Governance]** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **The Role of | | | | | the Sultan** | | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | - Brunei was | | | | | formed as a | | | | | country | | | | | when its | | | | | people | | | | | unanimously | | | | | and | | | | | voluntarily | | | | | entrusted | | | | | the power | | | | | to rule to | | | | | their | | | | | leader. The | | | | | Sultan of | | | | | Brunei had | | | | | the right | | | | | to rule | | | | | over the | | | | | whole | | | | | country. He | | | | | was the | | | | | highest | | | | | authority | | | | | in the | | | | | Brunei | | | | | government. | | | | | | | | | | - The Sultan | | | | | was the | | | | | head of the | | | | | government | | | | | (economy, | | | | | welfare, | | | | | education, | | | | | health), | | | | | religion | | | | | and | | | | | institution | | | | | s. | | | | | | | | | | - He also has | | | | | the power | | | | | to create | | | | | laws to | | | | | keep the | | | | | peace. | | | | | | | | | | - The ruling | | | | | sultan had | | | | | always been | | | | | the head of | | | | | Islam, ever | | | | | since the | | | | | time Sultan | | | | | Awang Alak | | | | | Betatar | | | | | embraced | | | | | Islam in | | | | | 1368 with | | | | | the title | | | | | Sultan | | | | | Muhammad | | | | | Shah (1363 | | | | | -- 1402). | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | D\' Property\'s |  | (1885 -- 1906) | - | | Saifuddin II | | | Wikipedia](medi | | | Sultan Abdul | | a/image4.jpeg) | | Sultan Omar Ali | Momin (1852 -- | | | | Saifuddien II | 1885) | | Sultan Muhammad | | | | | Jamalul Alam II | | (1828 -- 1852) | | | (1906 -- 1924) | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Sultan Ahmad |  | Sultan Haji | | | | | Hassanal | | | | Sultan Omar Ali | Bolkiah (1967 | | | | Saifuddien III | -- present) | | | | | | | | | (1950 -- 1967) | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **The people's | **The Royal |  | | | and the | city where | | | | bearer of | the central | Sultan Hashim's | | | blessings | government | palace, 1902 | | | in the | governed | | | | people's | the entire | Istana Sultan | | | eyes. | country. | Hashim | | | | | | | | - They gave | - It served | | | | him their | as an | | | | full | administrat | | | | loyalty and | ive | | | | obedience. | centre for | | | | | the | | | | - However, | country, | | | | the Sultan | and a | | | | needed to | centre of | | | | command | culture and | | | | their | commerce. | | | | loyalty or | | | | | else his | | | | | position | | | | | would be | | | | | precarious. | | | | | | | | | | - There were | | | | | two events | | | | | in which | | | | | this | | | | | happened: | | | | | | | | | | - 1835: | | | | | in | | | | | Sarawak | | | | | Asal. | | | | | | | | | | - 1884: | | | | | in | | | | | Limbang | | | | |. | | | | | | | | | | - These | | | | | caused | | | | | great | | | | | hardships | | | | | among the | | | | | people's | | | | | lives as | | | | | well as | | | | | problematic | | | | | for the | | | | | rulers. | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **The Appointment of the Wazir, Cheteria and Menteri** | +=======================================================================+ | - There were two levels of administration in Brunei: the *central | | government* and the *territorial administration.* | | | | - In the Brunei administrative hierarchy, all of Brunei's Sultans | | have had the power to appoint the council members of his own | | administration. | | | | - These members were the Wazir, Cheteria and Menteri. | | | | - This has existed from the time of the 7^th^ Sultan, Sultan Saiful | | Rijal (1533 -- 1581) and has continued into the 19^th^ century. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | The central government's hierarchy where the Wazir, Cheteria and | | Menteri assisted the Sultan | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **Wazir and | **Menteri** | | | Cheteria** | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | | In order to be | - Appointed from | | | appointed, the Wazir | among the common | | | and the Cheteria | citizens or | | | needed to meet the | people who were | | | following | not Pengiran. | | | requirements: | | | | | - They were from | | | - They had to be | among the upper | | | chosen from among | class society, | | | the closest | who were wealthy, | | | members of the | influential, | | | Royal Family | respected and | | | known as | knowledgable in | | | Raja-Raja | Islamic and | | | Berteras. | Bruneian customs. | | | | | | | - They needed to be | - Menteri were | | | among the | mostly appointed | | | following: | from among | | | | village heads or | | | - The Sultan's | tribe leaders, | | | brother | and they did not | | | | necessarily have | | | - The Sultan's | to be Muslims. | | | brother-in-la | | | | w | - They acted as | | | | intermediaries, | | | - The Sultan's | the middlemen who | | | son-in-law | connected the | | | | rulers with their | | | - Nephew | people. | | | | | | | - Uncle | - Menteri were | | | | given titles, the | | | - They had to be | power to govern, | | | Malay and also a | implement laws | | | Muslim. | and carry out the | | | | Sultan's orders. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **THE ROLE OF THE | | | | WAZIR** | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **[I. PENGIRAN | ![Pengiran Muda | | | BENDAHARA]{.underline | Hashim - Wikipedia | | | }** | Bahasa Melayu, | | | | ensiklopedia | | | He has the highest | bebas](media/image10. | | | rank among the 4 | jpeg) | | | Wazir and played a | | | | huge role in the | Pengiran Muda Hashim: | | | country's governance. | The Pengiran | | | Among his rights and | Bendahara during | | | responsibilities | Sultan Omar Ali | | | were: | Saifuddien II's reign | | | | | | | 1. He was the chief | | | | advisor to the | | | | Sultan. | | | | | | | | - He was always | | | | involved in | | | | discussions | | | | concerning | | | | administrativ | | | | e | | | | issues such | | | | as matters | | | | related to | | | | war or peace. | | | | | | | | - He supervised | | | | almost every | | | | aspect of the | | | | country's | | | | affairs. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1. He could be the | | | | *Pemangku Sultan* | | | | (acting Sultan) | | | | when the Sultan | | | | was not around. | | | | | | | | 2. He could be a | | | | potential | | | | candidate to | | | | replace the | | | | Sultan. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 3. He had the power | 4. He could also | 5. He had authority | | to appoint and | enforce his | over diplomatic | | terminate state | authority on | relations in the | | representatives | territorial lands | Bruneian | | in the | in the Bruneian | Sultanate as | | territorial | Sultanate. | well. He could | | lands. He could | | help Brunei | | appoint a local |  | and political | | James Brooke, a | | standing. | | Britishman, was | In the 1830s, the | | | appointed as state | Ibans of Sarawak Asal | Art illustrating | | representative in | rebelled against the | James Brooke leaning | | Kuching in 1841 by | Brunei Sultanate | towards the Sultan of | | Pengiran Muda Hashim. | whereby Pengiran Muda | Brunei to confirm his | | | Hashim had to step in | position as Rajah of | | | to put them down. | Sarawak bequeathed on | | | | him by Rajah Pengiram | | | | Muda Hashim. : | | | | r/malaysia | | | | | | | | This picture shows | | | | James Brooke | | | | discussing with SOAS | | | | II. When he was | | | | appointed as state | | | | representative, it | | | | confirmed Brunei's | | | | diplomatic relations | | | | with Britain. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **[II. PENGIRAN | | | | DIGADONG] | | | | ** | | | | | | | | He was the second | | | | highest ranking Wazir | | | | in 19^th^ century | | | | Brunei. His rights | | | | and responsibilities | | | | were: | | | | | | | | 1. He was second in | | | | line to be Sultan | | | | if the Pengiran | | | | Bendahara passed | | | | away or | | | | unavailable. | | | | | | | | 2. His main duty was | | | | to mainly of | | | | economic nature. | | | | | | | | - He managed | | | | and oversaw | | | | the country's | | | | treasury and | | | | the taxes on | | | | the country's | | | | resources. | | | | | | | | - He was | | | | assisted by | | | | eight | | | | Cheteria and | | | | Menteri: two | | | | Orang Kaya | | | | Digadong, | | | | Pengiran | | | | Shahbandar, | | | | Bendahari | | | | Dagang and | | | | Penyurat | | | | Dagang. | | | | | | | | 3. He was in charge | | | | of tax collection | | | | in territorial | | | | lands. | | | | | | | | - He was | | | | assisted by | | | | Menteri Darat | | | | (Land | | | | Ministers), | | | | who were the | | | | Menteri of | | | | Kedayan, | | | | Tutong, | | | | Sarawak, | | | | Kalakah, | | | | Saribas, | | | | Sabangan and | | | | Sadong. | | | | | | | | - He was also | | | | responsible | | | | for the | | | | security of | | | | the Kedayan | | | | and Bisaya | | | | communities | | | | who were crop | | | | producing | | | | communities. | | | | | | | | 4. He was also in | | | | charge of | | | | managing store | | | | reserves for | | | | medicine and | | | | weaponry, such as | | | | cannons and | | | | cannonballs. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **[III. PENGIRAN | | | | PEMANCHA] | | | | ** | | | | | | | | He was the third | | | | highest ranking | | | | Wazir. His roles and | | | | responsibilities | | | | were: | | | | | | | | 1. He was | | | | responsible for | | | | arranging the | | | | schedule of the | | | | meetings. | | | | | | | | 2. He was highest | | | | ranking official | | | | in the country's | | | | administrative | | | | affairs, customs | | | | and laws. | | | | | | | | 3. He was assisted | | | | by eight Cheteria | | | | and eight | | | | Menteri. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **[IV. PENGIRAN | ![Spain&\#39;s Battle | | | TEMENGGONG]{.underlin | of Brunei Bay, | | | e}** | 1521--pt.I \| by | | | | Joseph CMW \| | | | He was the fourth in | Medium](media/image14 | | | the hierarchy of |.jpeg) | | | Brunei's Wazir. But | | | | his responsibilities | Bruneian army | | | were also crucial: | fighting against | | | | Spain in 1521 | | | 1. He led the armed | | | | forces in the | | | | seas. | | | | | | | | - He was known | | | | as Raja Laut | | | | or The King | | | | of the Seas. | | | | | | | | - He was tasked | | | | with | | | | assembling | | | | the armed | | | | forces by | | | | ordering | | | | citizens to | | | | join Brunei's | | | | military in | | | | preparation. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 2. He was involved | | | | in overseeing the | | | | trading | | | | activities and | | | | also the people's | | | | social welfare in | | | | the Brunei | | | | Sultanate. He was | | | | assisted by | | | | Pengiran | | | | Shahbandar and | | | | local leaders. | | | | | | | | 3. He had played a | | | | role in law | | | | enforcement and | | | | followed the | | | | Hakum Kanun | | | | Brunei (The | | | | Brunei's Laws). | | | | He could arrest | | | | criminals and | | | | sentence | | | | punishments upon | | | | them. | | | | | | | | 4. He was also | | | | responsible in | | | | religious | | | | administration. | | | | Here he was | | | | assisted by | | | | Menteri Agama, | | | | Datuk Imam, | | | | Siraja Khatib, | | | | Udana Khatib and | | | | the other Khatib | | | | and Mudim. | | | | | | | | 5. He was assisted | | | | in all his duties | | | | by 8 Cheteria and | | | | 8 Menteri. Among | | | | them were Orang | | | | Kaya Shahbandar, | | | | Orang Kaya Setia | | | | Pahlawan, Orang | | | | Kaya Amar | | | | Pahlawan, Orang | | | | Kaya Johan | | | | Pahlawan, Orang | | | | Kaya Hamzah | | | | Pahlawan, Pateh | | | | and Damong. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **THE ROLE OF THE CHETERIA** | | +===================================+===================================+ | - At central government level, | | | they assisted in the | | | country's administration, | | | helping the Wazir. | | | | | | - At territorial level, they | | | were appointed as state | | | representatives. | | | | | | - The highest positions among | | | the Cheteria were the Head | | | Cheteria (Cheteria Empat): | | | Pengiran Shahbandar, Pengiran | | | Maharaja Lela, Pengiran | | | Paduka Tuan and Pengiran | | | Maharaja Adinda. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **[Pengiran Maharaja Lela and | **[Pengiran Paduka Tuan's | | Pengiran Maharaja Adinda's | duties:]** | | duties:]** | | | | - Worked with Pengiran Maharaja | | - They were in charge of | Lela and Pengiran Maharaja | | national security and | Adinda with Brunei's royal | | peacekeeping. | customs. | | | | | - Because of this duties, they | | | were given the right and | | | privilege to speak to the | - He oversaw the religious | | Sultan directly. | affairs and was the senior | | | officer of the Pengiran | | - They were also the leaders in | Pemancha. | | the governance of Brunei | | | royal customs. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **[Pengiran Shahbandar's | | | duties:]** | | | | | | - He was the most important | | | Cheteria. | | | | | | - He assisted Pengiran | | | Temenggong in trading | | | activities and the people's | | | welfare. | | | | | | - He monitored the Menteri in | | | the territorial lands, | | | especially the Orang Kaya | | | Shahbandar and local leaders | | | in river confluences. | | | | | | - His authority over them was | | | mainly related to trading | | | activities and tax collection | | | in the Brunei territorial | | | lands. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **[THE ROLE OF THE MENTERI]** The Menteri were divided into two: - The central government Menteri - The territorial land Menteri, the Menteri Darat. **CHAPTER 1: THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN BRUNEI IN THE 19^TH^ CENTURY** **[Chapter 1.2: The Territorial Administrative System]** - The Territorial Administrative System refers to the running and management of the traditional land rights. There were three traditional land rights were the Sungai Kerajaan, Sungai Kuripan and Sungai Tulin. - But the term 'sungai' was referred to territory, district or occupied lands. These 'sungai' included rivers, hills, capes, land areas, islands. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Sungai Kerajaan** | **Sungai Kuripan** | **Sungai Tulin** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | - These lands were | - These lands were | - These were lands | | owned by the | owned by the | owned by the | | ruling Sultan. | Wazir. | Sultan, Wazir, | | | | Cheteria. | | - All the income | - All incomes from | | | from these | the Sungai | - All incomes from | | territories | Kuripan became | these lands | | became the | the property of | became the | | Sultan's | the respective | property of these | | property. | Wazir. | owners. | | | | | | - These territories | - These territories | - These territories | | cannot be | cannot be | could be | | inherited to the | inherited by the | inherited by the | | Sultan's | Wazir's children. | owners' children. | | children. | | | | | - These properties | - Examples: | | - When a Sultan | will become the | | | steps down or | territories of | - Baram, Limau | | passes away, the | the next Wazir in | Manis, | | new Sultan will | charge. | Medewa, | | take over the | | Lawas, Likas | | ruling of the | - This means that | -- Sultan | | Sungai Kerajaan. | the ownership of | Abdul Momin | | | the Sungai | | | - This means that | Kuripan is tied | - Suai, Sibuti, | | the ownership of | to the position | Niah -- | | the Sungai | of the Wazir. | Pengiran | | Kerajaan is tied | | Pemancha | | to the position | - Examples: | Mohammad | | of the Sultan. | | Salleh. | | | - Bukit Sawat | | | - Examples: | -- Pengiran | - Owning Sungai | | | Bendahara | Tulin had more | | - Sarawak Asal | | benefits than | | | - Tutong --\ | owning the Sungai | | - Bandar Brunei | Pengiran | Kerajaan and | | | Digadong | Sungai Kuripan. | | - Kota Batu | | | | | - Belait --\ | - The internal | | - Temburong | Pengiran | administrative | | | Pemancha | matters in the | | | | Sungai Tulin | | | - Sungai Damit | could not be | | | -- Pengiran | interfered by the | | | Temenggong | Sultan. | | | | | | | - When a Wazir | | | | passed away, the | | | | Sungai Kuripan | | | | will be retained | | | | by the Sultan | | | | until a new Wazir | | | | is appointed. | | | | | | | | - During | | | | Sultan's | | | | Hashim reign, | | | | he refused to | | | | appoint a | | | | Pengiran | | | | Temenggong | | | | therefore | | | | both Sungai | | | | Damit and his | | | | Kerajaan | | | | Rivers was | | | | under his | | | | control. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ The Sultan only had full authority on Sungai Kerajaan and Sungai Tulin lands that belonged to him. In these territories, he had the power to appoint representatives, collect taxes, carry out trading activities, enforce laws, rent, sell, lease, surrender these lands to locals or foreigners. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Representatives** | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | | - The land owners | | | | had the authority | | | | to appoint their | | | | representatives | | | | for their | | | | territories since | | | | these owners | | | | usually lived in | | | | the central | | | | capital. | | | | | | | | - Upon their | | | | appointment, they | | | | were given an | | | | official cap | | | | mohor or official | | | | stamp and a keris | | | | (Malay dagger) as | | | | a sign of | | | | authority. | | | | | | | | - The main duties | | | | of the | | | | representatives | | | | were to be the | | | | intermediate | | | | persons to | | | | connect the | | | | central | | | | government with | | | | the territorial | | | | lands, run the | | | | administration, | | | | collect taxes and | | | | enforce laws as | | | | ordered by the | | | | territorial | | | | landowners. | | | | | | | | - Example: Pengiran | | | | Badarudin who | | | | represented Oya | | | | was a good | | | | governor and | | | | representative. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Taxes** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | - The tax |  | | | activities in the | | | | Brunei | | | | territorial lands | | | | continued from | | | | 1840 -- 1851 by | | | | Sultan Omar Ali | | | | Saifuddien II and | | | | his family in | | | | Kalakah, | | | | Samarahan, | | | | Saribas, Skrang, | | | | Sarikei, Mukah, | | | | Bintulu and Oya. | | | | | | | | - Apart from | | | | control over | | | | their | | | | territories, | | | | their authority | | | | over the | | | | residents was | | | | also important | | | | because they were | | | | the source of | | | | income for the | | | | traditional land | | | | rights in the | | | | form of taxes and | | | | trading | | | | activities. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Laws** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | - The landowners | | | | also had the | | | | authority to | | | | create and | | | | enforce laws in | | | | their territorial | | | | lands. | | | | | | | | - The landowners | | | | had the power to | | | | sentence | | | | punishments unto | | | | any residents | | | | that committed | | | | offence via | | | | fines, | | | | imprisonment, and | | | | beating by | | | | rattan. | | | | | | | | - The laws had to | | | | be aligned with | | | | the laws of the | | | | Brunei Sultanate. | | | | | | | | - Heavier sentences | | | | such as hand | | | | cutting and death | | | | needed to get | | | | approval from the | | | | Sultan first. | | | | | | | | - This showed that | | | | the Brunei | | | | Sultanate laws | | | | were very | | | | meticulous in | | | | sentence | | | | executions. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Renting** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | - Landowners could | Antimony - Earth | | | also rent out | Resources | | | their territories | | | | to interested | Antimony, a mineral | | | individuals. | used for making | | | | bullets. | | | - These rents | | | | enabled the | | | | Sultan and his | | | | family to earn | | | | extra income in | | | | the 19^th^ | | | | century. | | | | | | | | - These rentals | | | | were commonly | | | | made by | | | | foreigners, such | | | | as the Chinese | | | | and the British | | | | communities that | | | | opened | | | | plantations, or | | | | mined minerals, | | | | such as coal and | | | | antimony. | | | | | | | | - Example: 1880s: | | | | Sultan Abdul | | | | Momin rented out | | | | Mempakul | | | | territory, which | | | | had a Sungai | | | | Kerajaan status, | | | | to a Chinese | | | | businessman named | | | | Lee Chang Lan. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Selling** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | - Other than being |  | Chartered Company - | | Sungai Tulin | | Wikipedia | | lands could also | Sold lands in Sabah | | | be sold by its | | The BNBC | | owners to locals | | | | or foreigners. | | | | | | | | - Example: | | | | | | | | - Local | | | | purchase: | | | | Pengiran | | | | Muhammad Daud | | | | sold his | | | | lands in | | | | Kimanis and | | | | Sungai | | | | Belambang to | | | | Sultan Abdul | | | | Momin. | | | | | | | | - Foreign | | | | purchase: The | | | | British North | | | | Borneo | | | | Company | | | | bought lands | | | | in Sabah. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Leasing and | | | | surrendering** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | - Tulin rights | How Tulin rights | | | holders were | holders lost their | | | allowed to lease | territories from | | | or surrender | leasing their lands | | | their territories | to foreign powers | | | to locals or | | | | foreigners. | | | | | | | | - These landowners | | | | leased their | | | | lands so they | | | | could get extra | | | | income from | | | | annual payments | | | | from leasing | | | | these lands. | | | | | | | | - However, when | | | | leasing these | | | | lands to | | | | foreigners such | | | | as the Brookes | | | | and the BNBC, | | | | they would refuse | | | | to pay their | | | | annual payments | | | | to pressure the | | | | land owners to | | | | surrender these | | | | lands to them. | | | | | | | | - Foreigners would | | | | use different | | | | strategies to | | | | force the Tulin | | | | land rights | | | | holders to | | | | surrender their | | | | lands such as: | | | | pressuring, | | | | threatening, | | | | diplomacy and | | | | even armed | | | | threats. | | | | | | | | - For example: the | | | | Brookes managed | | | | to threaten the | | | | Sultan to | | | | surrender Tanjung | | | | Kidurong, Sungai | | | | Baram, Sungai | | | | Trusan and | | | | Limbang. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Advantages of | **Disadvantages of | | | traditional land | traditional land | | | rights** | rights** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | - It strengthened | - After the British | | | the political | interference, it | | | control of the | showed the | | | Brunei Sultanate | weaknesses of | | | over its | these traditional | | | territories in | land rights as it | | | the beginning of | has shown that | | | the 19^th^ | the Sultan had no | | | century. | power over | | | | territories that | | | - It provided | did not belong to | | | income for the | him. | | | landowners. | | | | | - Since he could | | | | not intervene, | | | | the landowners | | | | were free to | | | | sell, lease or | | | | surrender their | | | | lands. | | | | | | | | - This led to | | | | Brunei's | | | | shrinking kingdom | | | | in the late | | | | 19^th^ century. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **CHAPTER 1: THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN BRUNEI IN THE 19^TH^ CENTURY** **[Chapter 1.3: The Social Hierarchy of the Sultanate]** 19^th^ century Bruneian social hierarchy can be divided into two groups: the ruling class and the ordinary citizens. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Further examples of rakyat** | | +===================================+===================================+ | - The rakyat were mostly | | | farmers who lived inland. | | | | | | - They were comprised of | | | various ethnic or indigenous | | | groups of people. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The Muslims consisted of: | The non-Muslims: | | | | | - Brunei Malays | - Bisaya | | | | | - Kedayan | - Dusun | | | | | - Bajau | - Iban | | | | | - Melanau | - Bidayuh | | | | | | - Kayan | | | | | | - Murut | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - The Kedayan they were a tribe | | | involved in farming, | | | especially rice growing. | | | | | | | | | | | | - They lived everywhere, | | | capital, Sarawak and Sabah. | | | | | | - The Kedayan were said to have | | | from Java island and were | | | brought to Brunei during | | | Sultan Bolkiah's reign. | | | | | | - The Melanau were nipah palm | | | farmers who made sago. They | | | were also fishermen. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+  **CHAPTER 1: THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS IN BRUNEI IN THE 19^TH^ CENTURY** **[Chapter 1.4: The Economy]** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **The economy under the ruling | | | class** | | +===================================+===================================+ | The ruling class, with the | | | highest social status, consisted | | | of the Sultan, the royal family | | | and the Wazir, Cheteria and | | | Menteri. They were the people who | | | were the main players involved in | | | economic activities. | | | | | | They were usually involved in: | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Local commerce and | - Landlords renting out | | international commerce. | territorial lands and | | | collecting taxes. | |  | - Tax collection of various | | | kinds, such as head tax | | - For example. Sultan Abdul | imposed on residents who | | Momin had a monopoly on the | lived in the territorial | | dried brine shrimp trade, | lands that they owned. | | which made the British in | | | Labuan envious. Dried brine | - For example, in the 19^th^ | | shrimp was sold at a high | century, their | | price in Labuan. | representatives, the Orang | | | Kaya by the rivers of | | | Kimanis, Benoni, Papar and | | | Pengalat all sent the taxes | | | collected to the Brunei | | | central government. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Controlling the salt trade, a | | | necessity for the inland | | | people. | | | | | | - These activities made them | | | wealthy and gave them a | | | stable income, as well as | | | strong political powers. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Common citizens and the economy** | +=======================================================================+ | - The Brunei Malay societies living near the riverbanks and | | downstream were also involved in the economic activities of | | 19^th^ century. | | | | - They did not only trade in Bandar Brunei as pengalu (middlemen) | | for men, and padian (small traders) for the women, but they also | | traded in Sarawak, Sabah and Labuan. | | | | - Merchants who went to those areas were known as nakhoda | | (captain). | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ |  | | | | *The padians of Kampung Ayer* | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - For common citizens other |  | | consisted of various ethnics | | | or indigenous groups of | *Padians and pengalu in Bandar | | people, and were mostly | Seri Begawan in the 20^th^ | | middle-income earners | century.* | | involved in economic | | | activities such as commerce, | | | farming, fishing, and | | | handicrafting. | | | | | | - The products of their | | | economic activities were not | | | meant to be sold, but merely | | | to feed their own families | | | daily. | | | | | | - They lived in villages with | | | strong family ties. | | | | | | - In such villages, apart from | | | commoners, there were also | | | state representatives, titled | | | local leaders, and village | | | heads. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Livelihoods of the | | | | tribes in Brunei** | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | For the Kedayan, | The Melanau: | The Bajau: | | Bisaya, Dusun, Murut, | | | | Iban, Bidayuh and | - Grew nipah palms | - Lived in the | | Kayan people, their | to be made into | coastal areas | | economic activities | sago flour. | were involved in | | consisted of: | | fishing | | | - Some of them were | activities. | | - Farming, | also fishermen. | | | especially | | - They were | | shifting | | involved in | | cultivation, such | | fisheries, | | as rice farming, | | engaged in | | growing fruits | | economic | | and vegetables. | | activities. | | | | | | - Rearing animals | | | | and | | | | | | | | - Hunting. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **[Relationships | | | | between the tribes in | | | | Brunei:]* | | | | * | | | | | | | | - It was common for | | | | both the inland | | | | and coastal | | | | residents to | | | | depend on each | | | | other in their | | | | economic | | | | activities. | | | | | | | | - For example, the | | | | Bajau in 19^th^ | | | | century Sabah, | | | | who with the | | | | Dusun, who needed | | | | their products | | | | such as fish, | | | | salt, fabric, | | | | pottery and | | | | copper. | | | | | | | | - Relationships | | | | like this also | | | | took place | | | | between Sungai | | | | Tutong residents | | | | and the Dusun who | | | | lived inland. | | | | | | | | - The same was true | | | | for the Melanau | | | | in Sungai Mukah | | | | who had a close | | | | relationship with | | | | the Kayan. In the | | | | beginning, | | | | trading | | | | activities were | | | | done by | | | | exchanging items | | | | in a barter | | | | system, but | | | | later, as | | | | civilisation | | | | developed, they | | | | were conducted | | | | using money. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **[Brunei's natural | | | | resources were vast | | | | and valuable for | | | | traders:] | | | | ** | | | | | | | | - In the 19^th^ | | | | century, Bandar | | | | Brunei, as the | | | | centre of | | | | administration, | | | | truly became a | | | | hub for traders | | | | from the Brunei | | | | territories. | | | | | | | | - For example, | | | | traders from | | | | Kalaka and Baram | | | | went to the port | | | | in brunei with | | | | 100 pikul (10,000 | | | | kati) of black | | | | bird's nests, 200 | | | | pikul of candles, | | | | gold, black | | | | pepper, camphor | | | | and grains. | | | | | | | | - Practically the | | | | same merchandise | | | | was also brought | | | | by Kimanis | | | | traders every | | | | year. These | | | | products were | | | | sold to Brunei | | | | Malays who were | | | | traders, | | | | Pengirans or even | | | | Brunei loyalty. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Brunei's Trade Relations with China** | +=======================================================================+ | - In the mid-19^th^ century, Brunei was known as the 'first mart in | | the East for China-Malayan commerce.' | | | | - The rivers of Brunei functioned as trading places for people to | | purchase produce from the natives, whose job was to gather the | | produce from the jungle. | | | | - Produce such as coal, iron, camphor and sago were sent to | | Brunei's ports to be sold to Chinese and European traders. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Iron - Minerals |  | Sago | | | | | | | Camphor | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ |  | to the | | | | development of | | | | Brunei's trade | | | | and the economy | | | | as a whole. | | | | | | | | - Brunei and China | | | | enjoyed close | | | | ties going back | | | | to the 18^th^ | | | | century, which | | | | led to China's | | | | increased demand | | | | for products | | | | farmed in Borneo. | | | | | | | | - Brunei's trade | | | | with China was | | | | further aided by | | | | the fact that it | | | | was situated in a | | | | prime location to | | | | facilitate trade | | | | between the two | | | | countries. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+