Botany PDF

BOTANY Botany - comes from the Greek words botanikos (botanical), botane (plant or herb), and boskein (to feed). Botany as a science: ⦿ At first the, the interest in plants was mostly practical and centered around how plants might provide food,...

BOTANY Botany - comes from the Greek words botanikos (botanical), botane (plant or herb), and boskein (to feed). Botany as a science: ⦿ At first the, the interest in plants was mostly practical and centered around how plants might provide food, fibers, fuel, and medicine. ⦿ Eventually, an intellectual interest arose. Individuals become curious about how they were reproduced and how they were put together. The inquisitiveness led to plant study becoming a SCIENCE, which is broadly defined is simply “ a search for knowledge of the natural world”.  Fundamental Properties of Life Although organisms can be as different as mango trees, elephants, and bacteria, they share certain fundamental properties common to all life such as: 1. Growth and Reproduction – organisms have the capacity to grow and reproduce. ❖ Intussusception- When there is an addition of material and formation of the cells inside the organism, the growth is known as intussusception. ❖ The growth exhibited by living things. ❖ The increase in size due to the deposition of material on the external surface is known as extrinsic growth or accretion. ❖ The growth exhibited by the non-living things ❖ Sexual- ❖ Asexual-  2. Ability to Respond – The environment is never static, it is always changing, and organisms have the capabilities to respond to these changes. Example: stem growing towards the light animal hibernating for the winter 3. Metabolism – is the sum total of all chemical reactions occurring in living organisms. The most important metabolic reactions are cellular respiration and photosynthesis ❖ Respiration is a process in which food is chemically broken down to release energy. ❖ Photosynthesis-the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis in plants generally involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct: ❖ "during photosynthesis plants absorb CO₂" is the process that links 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O → C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 4. Ability to Evolve and Adapt – All life constantly evolves or changes as evidenced by the fossil record. Sometimes changes promote survival because the altered species is better adapted to its environment. Example: many desert plants have evolved water–storing tissue, an adaptation that helps them survive their arid environment. 5. Organized Structure – All living organisms are composed of one or more cells which is the basic functional unit of life. 6. Organic Composition – All organisms are composed mainly of four type of compounds (Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acid). 7. Power of assimilation - the ability to convert non-living materials into living substances (protoplasm) with its characteristics, and specialized molecular arrangements.  HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF BOTANY  HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF BOTANY Pre- Historic Periods: Plants have been used by man since pre-historic times for one purpose or another but there was no science of plants, no orderly or systematized knowledge about them. The first study of plants by primitive man was concerned with the medicinal values of plants. The Ebers Papyrus (1500 B.C.) contains a list of a number of Egyptians drug plants and their uses. 1. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) – studied the nature of plants 2. Theophrastus of Ephesus (371-277 B.C.) – a disciple of Aristotle regarded by the botanist as the Father of Botany. Among his writings are: “The Inquiry Into Plants””The History of Plants” 3. Dioscorides – wrote a valuable herbal, “The Materia Medica”. 4. Crateuas – showed plants by figures without descriptions and is known as the Father of Botanical Illustrations.  Rome too, had her share in the development of plant science through the following contributions: 1. Pliny, the Elder (A.D. 23-79) – described almost thousand species of 2. plants with medicinal Cato – wrote uses. He also the first agricultural bookwrote the “Natural “De Rustica” in latin.History” Medieval Period (Dark Ages And Renaissance): The Dark Ages lasted until the beginning of the 16th century was a period of inactivity of European science because this was the time of Black Death; the Arab Invasion, and the Crusades. The beginning of 16th century the Renaissance renewed interest in plant. This is the period of the Herbals. Among the outstanding herbalist are: 1. Leonhard Fuchs (15501-1566) - wrote the book of “The History of Herbs (German Physician) 2. Heironymous Bock (1498-1554) – made a distinguishing effects and names of herbs 3. Gaspard Bauhin (1560-1624) – published excellent description of about 6000 species of plants.  4. Caesalpino (1583) – herbalist who first proposed extensive classification of plants. Modern Period: Modern botanical study began in the later part of the 17th century. Most botanical works were on classification from 17th and early part of 20th centuries. 1. Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) – Father of Taxonomy, proposed a sexual system of plant classification not based on natural relationships. 2. A.L. de Jusuieu (1748-1836) – formulated systems of plant classification which were largely phylogenetic Phylogenetic - a system of classification of organisms based on their developmental relationships rather than their overall similarity of form. 3. Zacharias Jansen – perfected the magnifying lens in 1590, the greatest aid in plant anatomy. 4. Robert Hooke (1635-1703) – The beginning of cytology 5. Marcelo Malphigi (1628-1694) – started investigations on the internal structure thus paving the knowledge of plant anatomy.  6. Camerarius (1665-1721) – demonstrated by experiments the sexuality in flowers. He proved that the pollen grain is necessary for fertilization and seed formation. 7. Mathias Schleiden (1804-1881) – formulated the cell theory which states that cell is a structural and functional unit of all organisms. 8. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)- He wrote a book on evolution called “ The Origin of the Species” published in 1859. He recognized that the plants of today have developed from simpler forms of the past. 9. Gregor Mendel )1822-1834) – proposed the laws of inheritance. He is regarded as the Father of Genetics. 10. Stephen Hales (1677-1761)- made critical experiments on the manufacture of food by plants and upon the transportation of materials within the plant body. He is the founder of Plant Physiology. Scope of Botanical Studies Scope of Botanical Studies The subordinate to Sciences are: I. Pure Botany – the study of plants for their intrinsic interesting features of structures and behavior for the sake of knowledge. A. Morphology – deals with the plant form, structure and development. It includes several fields of botanical studies: 1. Gross Morphology – deals with the study of the external structure of plants. 2. Plant Anatomy – deals with the study of fine details of internal plant structure. 3. Plant Histology – deals with the study of tissues 4. Plant Cytology – deals with the study of cell structure and cell behavior. 5. Embryology – deals with the study of the progressive changes in the form and structure from fertilization to the time the embryo is formed. B. Taxonomy or Systematic Botany – Is the study of science which is concerned with identification, correct nomenclature, and placing of individual plants or group of plants into the categories related by descent. It includes several fields of botanical studies: 1. Plant Physiology – deals with the physiological or functional processes associated with plant life a. Plant Biochemistry – deals with the chemical constitution of the plants b. Plant Biophysics – studies the phenomena of plant life which are governed by physical laws. 2. Plant Ecology – deals with the study of plants in relation to the external environment. 3. Plant Geography or Phytogeography – deals with the study of the distribution of the various individual types of plants and plant association which cover the land surface of the earth together with those found in water and in soil. 4. Geological Botany or Paleobotany - deals with the study of the extinct plants that exist today as fossils. II. Economic or Applied Botany – deals with the study of plants for their commercial, economic and practical value. Subordinate sciences are: A. Agriculture – deals with the study of the production of food. It covers specialized field such as: 1. Agronomy – deals with the study of field crops and soil management to increase production. 2. Pathology – deals with the study of plant diseases and how to control them. 3. Genetics or Plant Breeding – deals with the study of heredity and variations 4. Horticulture – deals with the cultivation of orchards and garden plants. a. Olericulture – vegetable crops b. Pomology – fruit production c. Floriculture - cultivation of ornamental and flowering plants B. Forestry - study of forest and timber plant management 1. Dendrology – study of trees 2. Wood Technology - study of the uses of wood C. Pharmaceutical Botany – deals with the study of plants from which are obtained various drugs used in the treatment of diseases in man and other animals. 1. Pharmacognosy – deals with the collection, preservation and classification of medicinal plants. 2. Pharmacology – deals with the study of the action of drugs. D. Landscape Architecture – study of the beautification of the surface of the earth. III. Specialized fields in Botany 1. Phycology or Algalogy – algae a. Diatomology - study of diatoms 2. Mycology – fungi a. Lichenology – lichens 3. Microbiology – the study of microorganisms a. Bacteriology - study of bacteria b. Virology – study of virus 4. Bryology – study of bryophytes a. Moscology – mosses b. Hepaticology – liverworts and hornworts 5. Pteridology – pteridophytes 6. Palynology – pollen grains and spores  DIFFERENCES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS  DIFFERENCES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS ANIMALS ❖ Both size and form are quite ❖ Generally have a maximum size 1. Form and variable and depend on the and definite form (these do not structure nature of the environment change to any marked extent ❖ Organs are mostly external after the animals become mature. ❖ Form is invariable with a certain limit ❖ Organs are mostly internal ❖ Can manufacture their own ❖ Depend on other organisms for 2. Metabolism food by photosynthesis food (they cannot manufacture (autotrophic) their own food (heterotrophic) ❖ Mostly anabolic ❖ Mostly catabolic ❖ Most plants can produce ❖ Do not have spores 3. Reproduction spores(non-sexual reproductive cells)  ❖ No nervous system so they ❖ Generally with a nervous 4. Irritability respond slowly system so they react quickly to stimulus ❖ show a higher degree of sensitivity ❖ plants are anchored in the ❖ can move from one place to 5. Locomotion soil in which they grow another (stationary) ❖ bounded by a cell wall which ❖ no cell wall 6. Cell is thick, rigid and are made ❖ bounded by a cell membrane up primarily of a which is thin and delicate carbohydrate compound called as cellulose ❖ with cell wall  SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS  SIMILARITIES BETWEEN OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 1. Both use food as a source of energy and a material for the building of their living substances (protoplasm). 2. Both are able to digest complex foods. 3. Both produce substances called hormones, which influence various of development. 4. Both grow as new cells which are formed from old cells or as cells enlarged (intussusceptions). 5. Both take part in reproductive processes that lead to the development of offspring 6. Both are composed mainly of water and require in varying quantities, for the normal processes of life  7. Both transport materials within their bodies 8. Both are sensitive to environment and are able to react to these conditions. 9. Cells become differentiated in accordance with an orderly pattern, to yield the final body form (cell differentiation) SCIENTIFIC METHOD It is a logical and orderly way of trying to solve a problem. It is this logic and order that makes the scientific method different from ordinary approaches. SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES: 1. intellectual - knowledgeable 2. open-mindedness- open-mindedness to change or drop a hypothesis if the evidence does not support it. 3. curiosity- curious about everything around us 4. rational- reasonable & sensible in showing evidence. Clear and sensible thinking and judgement based on reasons rather than emotions. 5. systematic – organize in using a method or system 6. willingness to work hard 7. willingness to suspend judgment  STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1. Definition of the problem – first you have to define a problem and begin to formulate questions about an event. A problem to be studied should be limited in scope to make it manageable. 2. Collection of information on the problem - before beginning an experiment, the researcher studies all important information that has to with the problem. Library of scientific papers, journals and books is a important part to support your problem. 3. Formulation of hypothesis- a hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon, used as a basis for further investigation. No matter how reasonable the hypothesis, it cannot be accepted until supported by a large number of tests. The research worker must be open-minded to change or drop a hypothesis if the evidence does not support it. 4. Experimentation – this is to test the hypothesis. The researcher must set up an experiment that will either support or disprove the hypothesis. Other factors must be removed, only the condition involved in the hypothesis must be involved.  5. Observation and Collection of Data from the Experiment – everything about the experiment should be recorded accurately. The record may include notes, drawings, tables, graphs, or other sources of information. This information is called data. 6. Drawing of Conclusion – such conclusion must be based entirely on facts observed in the experiment. A conclusion is a statement of whether or not the results of an experiment support the hypothesis AN EXAMPLE OF A SCIENTIFIC METHOD For centuries, people based their beliefs on their interpretations of what they saw going on in the world around them without testing their ideas to determine the validity of these theories — in other words, they didn’t use the scientific method to arrive at answers to their questions. Rather, their conclusions were based on untested observations. Among these ideas, since at least the time of Aristotle (4th Century BC), people (including scientists) believed that simple living organisms could come into being by spontaneous generation. This was the idea that non-living objects can give rise to living organisms. It was common “knowledge” that simple organisms like worms, beetles, frogs, and salamanders could come from dust, mud, etc., and food left out, quickly “swarmed” with life. For example Question: Where do the flies at the butcher shop really come from? Does rotting meat turn into or produce the flies? Hypothesis: Rotten meat does not turn into flies. Only flies can make more flies. Prediction: If meat cannot turn into flies, rotting meat in a sealed (fly-proof) container should not produce flies or maggots. Testing: Wide-mouth jars each containing a piece of meat were subjected to several variations of “openness” while all other variables were kept the same. A. control group — These jars of meat were set out without lids so the meat would be exposed to whatever it might be in the butcher shop. B. experimental group(s) — One group of jars was sealed with lids, and another group of jars had gauze placed over them. C. replication — Several jars were included in each group. Data: Presence or absence of flies and maggots seen in each jar was recorded. In the control group of jars, flies were seen entering the jars. Later, maggots, then more flies were seen on the meat. In the gauze-covered jars, no flies were seen in the jars, but were observed around and on the gauze, and later a few maggots were seen on the meat. In the sealed jars, no maggots or flies were ever seen on the meat. Conclusion(s): a. Only flies can make more flies. b. In the uncovered jars, flies entered and laid eggs on the meat. Maggots hatched from these eggs and grew into more adult flies. c. Adult flies laid eggs on the gauze on the gauze-covered jars. These eggs or the maggots from them dropped through the gauze onto the meat. d. In the sealed jars, no flies, maggots, nor eggs could enter, thus none were seen in those jars. Maggots arose only where flies were able to lay eggs. This experiment disproved the idea of spontaneous generation for organisms. END