1st Sem Cheat Sheet Draft PDF

Unit 1: Scientific method: Question, Research, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data Analysis, Conclusion, and Communication Independent variable: independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher. Dependent variable: the outcome Characteristics of life: sensitivity or resp...

Unit 1: Scientific method: Question, Research, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data Analysis, Conclusion, and Communication Independent variable: independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher. Dependent variable: the outcome Characteristics of life: sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, energy processing, and evolution Hierarchy of life:atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere Water: Polar because there is an uneven distribution of electrons between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Cohesion: an attraction between molecules of the same substance. Adhesion: an attraction between molecules of different substances. Solute is a substance that is dissolved. Buffers are weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp changes in PH. Carbohydrates made of monosaccharides (polymer) polysaccharides (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) Carbs used for short term energy Lipids made of fatty acids into a chain, saturated (solid), unsaturated (liquid) Difference is that lipid with at least one carbon- carbon double bond in a fatty acid = unsaturated Lipids help with moving and storing energy, absorbing vitamins and making hormones Nucleic acids made of nucleotides (five carbon sugar a phosphate group and then nitrogenous base), examples DNA and RNA Proteins are made of amino acids (w/ amino group (-NH2) and carboxyl group (-COOH) Polypeptide is a linear chain of amino acids, while a protein is a more complex structure composed of one or more polypeptide chains that have folded into a specific three-dimensional shape. Primary : just atoms bonded. Secondary: Helix structure. Tertiary: Coil made up of the helixes. Quaternary: Composed of 2 or more “subunits”, globular shape, form in aqueous environments. Dehydration synthesis where the thing loses water and through that bonds are formed. (the formation of a disaccharide like sucrose from two monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose, where a water molecule is released as the sugars link together to create a larger molecule) Hydrolysis is where water is mostly used to break down the chemical bonds that exists between a particular substance (the breakdown of table sugar (sucrose) into its component sugars, glucose and fructose, when water is added) Enzyme: a protein that helps speed up metabolism Active site: a region on an enzyme that binds to a protein or other substance during a reaction. Substrate: the substance on which an enzyme acts. Product: what is made from the reaction All affect enzyme activity: temperature, pH level, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, and the presence of activators or inhibitors Unit 2 CELL STRUCTURE FUNCTION MADE OF PLANT/ANIMAL/BOTH / LOCATION Cell membrane Protection for cell, Lipid bilayer Both, surround cells regulates what goes in or out Cell Wall Provides structure and cellulose Plant, outside the cell strength membrane Nucleus Holds DNA, controls the Protons and neutrons both cell Nuclear membrane Acts as cell membrane for Nuclear ports Both, surrounding nucleus nucleus Nucleolus Ribosomes RNA, DNA Both, the cell’s nucleus Chromatin Package DNA into a unit DNA bound to proteins Both, spread throughout to fit into the nucleus nucleus Cytoplasm Holds the components of Water, salts, various Both, inside/outside the cells in place and protects organic molecules nucleus them Ribosomes Produce proteins RNA Both, free in cytoplasm or bound to rough ER ER Lipid components of cell Folded membranes with Both, attached to nucleus membrane enzymes mitochondria Generates energy DNA Both, cytoplasm vacuoles Stores water Filled with water, Both, cytoplasm enzymes or cell sap lysosomes Breakdown organic Organic molecules with ANimal, cytoplasm molecules with enzymes membrane Golgi apparatus Package proteins and Membrane sac, vacuoles Both, cytoplasm other materials for storage in cell Chloroplasts Produce energy from Plastids containing Plants, cytoplasm photosynthesis chlorophyll Microtubules Supports the shape of a Tubulin Both, cytoplasm cell  Microfilaments Assists with cell Actin monomers Both, cytoplasm movement Centrioles Organize cell division Tubulin Both, cytoplasm Cytoskeleton Helps cell maintain shape microtubules Both, cytoplasm Prokaryotes: no membrane-bound organelles, no nucleus, DNA stored freely in cytoplasm Eukaryotes: can be unicellular, mostly multicellular, DNA stored in nucleus, membrane-bound organelles Rough ER- ribosomes Smooth ER- no ribosomes Magnification - make smaller objects book bigger : SIZE Resolution - ability to distinguish 2 objects : QUALITY High power/ low power = low FOV/high FOV Passive transport- requires no energy, from high to low concentration Diffusion : movement of molecules from high to low concentration Osmosis - diffusion of water across membrane ( towards salt ) Facilitated diffusion -: diffusion with carriers Active transport - require ATP, from low to high concentration, goes against concentration gradient Endocytosis - taking “in” large molecules by cell Exocytosis - removing large particles (waste) from the cell Phagocytosis - endocytosis with large particles, engulf solids and results in the formation of vacuoles Pinocytosis – uptake in liquids and results the formation of pinocytotic vesicles Hypertonic - less water, more salt Hypotonic - more water, less salt Isotonic - equal solute, equal solvent Equilibrium- moles evenly spread, can occur in air, water, membrane, WATER WILL GO TOWARDS THE SALT Endosymbiosis Theory - one organism lives inside the other (endosymbiosis), Large host cell and ingested bacteria could easily become dependent of one another EX: MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS Factors that affect the rate of diffusion : steeper concentration gradient, higher temperatures increase the kinetic energy of particles, making them move faster and increasing the rate of diffusion, SA allows more particles to diffuse at once, increasing the diffusion rate CELL THEORY 1. Every living thing is made of one or more cells 2. Cell is basic unit of structure and function 3. All existing cells are produced by other living cells Unit 3 Photosynthesis formula 6Co2 + 6H2O + light = C6H12O6 +6O2 Plants are autotrophs animals are heterotrophs With Water and carbon dioxide photosynthesis requires light and chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is the plant's principal pigment Chlorophyll absorbs light and blue violet and red but not in green so the green color is reflected. Chloroplast contains photosynthetic membranes called thylakoids. Proteins in the thylakoid membrane organized chlorophyll and other proteins into clusters called photosystems. The Calvin Cycle takes place in the stroma, the region outside the thylakoid membranes. Light dependent reactions require light and the light dependent reactions use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH they convert ADP and NADP+ to ATP and NADPH. Light dependent reactions: light absorption by Photosystem II (PSII), electron transport along the electron transport chain, splitting of water molecules (photolysis), proton gradient formation, ATP synthesis (photophosphorylation), light absorption by Photosystem I (PSI), and reduction of NADP+ to NADPH. ATP is the source of energy use and storage Structure of ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate(ATP) is classed as a nucleotide and is composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups that are held together by covalent bonds Role of ATP in cells: ATP can release its energy quickly by hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate(reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ATPsynthase) Once ATP has released its energy, it becomes ADP(drops one phosphate) ADP is a low energy molecule that can be recharged by adding a phosphate Calvin cycle: plants use the energy that ATP and nadph contain to build high energy compounds that can be stored for a long time 3 steps of Calvin Cycle: Fixation, reduction, regeneration Affect the rate of photosynthesis include: light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature, water availability, chlorophyll concentration, nutrient availability, and leaf surface area Calvin cycle: carbon dioxide (CO2), ATP (adenosine triphosphate), and NADPH) →G3P, which will be used to produce glucose Cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP Light reaction: uses water (H2O), ADP (adenosine diphosphate), and NADP Fermentation: uses glucose (sugar), which is initially broken down into pyruvate Cellular respiration: to generate usable energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) by breaking down glucose molecules Fermentation: to regenerate NAD+ by oxidizing NADH Aerobic: uses oxygen Anaerobic: No oxygen needed -Most multicellular organisms, including all animals, plants, fungi, and many bacteria, perform aerobic respiration -Most bacteria, archaea, yeast (a type of fungi), and certain human muscle cells do anaerobic respiration. -Organisms that perform fermentation include bacteria, yeast, and even certain animal muscle cells - formula for lactic acid fermentation: Pyruvic acid + NADH -> lactic acid + NAD+ - formula for alcoholic fermentation: Pyruvic acid + NADH -> Alcohol + CO2 + NAD+ - Photosynthesis drives energy entry into ecosystems and carbon fixation. - Cellular respiration releases energy for use by organisms and returns carbon to the atmosphere. Together, they ensure a balance in energy flow and carbon cycling, maintaining ecosystem stability and life. Krebs cycle: pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy extracting reactions Electron transport chain: uses the high energy electrons from the krebs cycle to convert ADP into ATP. Cellular respiration starts with glycolysis All organisms do glycolysis because its anaerobic Glycolysis is a set of reactions that converts glucose to pyruvate or lactate Unit 4 Gregor Mendel - father of genetics Purebred- 2 of the same kind; PP or pp Crossed - mating Self-pollination - Pollen and ovule from the same plant Hybrid- offing of the opposite true breeding plant P1 Generation - parental F1 Generation - offspring Law of Dominance - For a given trait, one allele is dominant over the other Alleles - different version of a gene Genes- unit of heredity passed from parents to child Genotype - actual genetic makeup Phenotype - physical appearance Dominant- R, recessive r Law of Segregation - pair of alleles separate during gamete formation Homozygous - same alleles, either AA or aa Heterozygous - hybrid different alleles, Aa Monohybrid cross - single trait cross Law of Independent Assortment - during meiosis, alleles of different genes are sorted into gametes independently of each other Exception to the Law of Dominance - not always true that one allele is always dominant and expressed over the recessive allele Incomplete Dominance - neither allele is expressed when it is just one EX: rr (red) x ww (white) = rw (pink) Codominance - both alleles are equally expressed EX: BB (black) x WW (white ) = BW (black and white) Polygenic traits - many genes coding for a trait Multiple alleles - 3 alleles determine our blood group Exception to Law of Segregation - not always true that each gene has at least 2 alleles, X and Y chromosomes are different Exception to Law of Independent Assortment - Many genes are located on the same chromosomes and therefore can affect each other Gene linkage - if the alleles are on the same chromosome, they don’t separate and are inherited together Results - offspring will inherit alleles AB or ab Crossing over - separates linked genes on the same chromosome Linked genes can still get separated as a result of crossing over PEDIGREE RULES 1. If the trait is dominant, 1 of the parents will express the trait 2. If the trait is recessive, none of the parents will express the trait 3. If the trait is autosomal, both males and females express equally 4. If the trait is sex-linked, more males will express the trait Meiosis - the process of cell division by which gametes are produced Meiosis produces 4 reproductive cells called gametes Reduction division - divides the number of chromosomes of the cell Zygote- fusion of sperm and egg 4 haploid daughter cells created at the end of meiosis diploid - 2n (2 sets of chromosomes) Haploid - n (1 set of chromosomes) Crossing over- the process when homologous chromosomes cross over their gene that is shared, resulting in variety in alleles, occurs in prophase 1 Homologous pair of chromosomes - pair of chromosomes that are the same height and have the same genes at the same location Oogenesis - 1 egg Spermatogenesis - 4 sperms Meiosis - occurs in the testes and ovaries Mitosis - occurs in the somatic cells or everywhere in the body Cytokinesis Plant cells - a new cell plate is formed to divide the cytoplasm Animal cells - a furrow pinches the cell membrane inward to separate the daughter cells Replicating the DNA must occur to the DNA in the nucleus before mitosis can occur Parent and daughter cells after mitosis - have the same genetic information and the same number of chromosomes Mitosis - it is the primary method of reproduction for unicellular organisms Mitosis - enables the growth of new cells and repairs the damaged tissues by replacing the worn-out cells in multicellular organisms