114_Theories-of-Aging.pdf

NCM 114: THEORIES OF AGING MA. CONCEPCION A. MAICO, RN, MAN, Ed.D. 01 02 Psychosocial Attempt to explain aging in terms of behavior, personality, and attitude Concerned with personality...

NCM 114: THEORIES OF AGING MA. CONCEPCION A. MAICO, RN, MAN, Ed.D. 01 02 Psychosocial Attempt to explain aging in terms of behavior, personality, and attitude Concerned with personality of ego development and the accompanying challenges Theories change. associated with various life changes. 03 04 Attempt to explain why older adults have different Further broken down into: responses to the aging a) sociological theories process. b) psychological theories Sociological Theories  ACTIVITY THEORY HAVIGHURST AND SUGGESTS THAT… OTHER ALBRECHT RESEARCHERS Conceived as actual Activity is associated Lemon, Bengston, & Peterson found a direct relationship theory in 1963. with psychosocial between role and activity health. engagement and life Remaining occupied and satisfaction. involved is a necessary Activity as a means to Informal activities through ingredient to satisfying prolong middle age and group activities are more likely late-life. delay the negative to improve life satisfaction than effects of old age. formal or solitary activities.  DISENGAGEMENT THEORY CUMMING & HENRY (1961) SUGGESTS THAT… SUGGESTS THAT… Developed to explain Persons are freed from Aging is characterized by why aging persons social responsibilities gradual disengagement separate from the and gain time for from society and relationships. mainstream of society. internal reflection. Desired by society and older adults, serves to maintain social equilibrium.  SUBCULTURE THEORY ROSE (1965) PROPOSES THAT… Views older adults as a Although this subculture unique subculture within segregates the elderly society formed as a from the rest of society, defensive response to older adults prefer to society’s negative interact among attitudes and the loss of themselves. status that accompanies aging.  CONTINUITY THEORY HAVIGHURST, NEUGARTEN, SUGGESTS THAT… ACKNOWLEDGES… & TOBIN (1960s) Personality influences Personality is well developed That individual differences the roles one assumes, by the time one reaches old age produce varied responses and tends to remain consistent to aging. how roles are enacted, across the life span. and one’s satisfaction Coping and personality patterns 4 Personality types: with living. integrated, armored- provide clues as to how an aging individual will adjust to defended, passive- changes, what activities to dependent, unintegrated engage in.  TASKS INCLUDE v Adjusting to physical, financial, and social decline v Contemplating death v Developing a personal and meaningful perspective on the end of life Successful accomplishment of these tasks is evidenced by identifying with one’s age group, finding a living environment that is compatible with physical functioning, and learning new societal roles. AGE STRATIFICATION THEORY RILEY (1970s) THUS… Society is stratified into Age cohorts and different age categories that corresponding roles vary are the basis for acquiring across generations. resources, roles, status, and deference from others in society. Individuals in different generations have different Age cohorts are influenced by experiences that may cause the historical context in which them to age in different they live. ways.  PERSON-ENVIRONMENT- FIT THEORY LAWTON (1982) FUNCTIONAL COMPETENCE THEORY IN PRACTICE Introduces functional Affected by multiple Useful for exploring optimal competence in intrapersonal conditions such environments for older as ego strength, motor skills, adults with functional relationship to the biologic health, cognitive limitations and identifying environment as a central capacity, and sensori- needed modifications in theme. perceptual capacity as well as older adult residential external conditions posed by settings. the environment.  GEROTRANSCENDENCE THEORY TORNSTAM (1994) SUCCESSFUL TRANSFORMATION Proposes that aging Include a more outwards and individuals undergo a external focus, accepting impending death without cognitive transformation fear, an emphasis on from a materialistic, substantive relationships, a rational perspective sense of connectedness with toward oneness with the preceding and future universe. generations, and spiritual unity with the universe. Psychological Theories  HUMAN NEEDS THEORY (MASLOW, 1954) Physical, economic, social, Hierarchy of Needs and environmental motivates human behavior constraints can impede need fulfillment of older Movement is multi- adults. directional and dynamic in a lifelong process toward Failure to grow leads to need fulfillment. feelings of failure, depression, and the perception that life is meaningless.  INDIVIDUALISM (JUNG, 1960) As individuals age, Jung Proposes a life span view of proposes that elders personality development. engage in an “inner search” Further, according to Jung, to critique their beliefs and successful aging includes Defines personality as being accomplishments. acceptance and valuing of composed of an ego or self- the self without regard to identity with a personal and Successful aging means the view of others. collective unconsciousness. acceptance of the past and an ability to cope with functional decline and loss of significant others.  PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT (ERIKSON, 1963) Ego integrity vs. despair Characterized by evaluating The most positive outcomes one’s life and Older adults struggle with of this life review are accomplishments for wisdom, understanding, and letting go, accepting the meaning. acceptance; the most care of others, detaching from life, and physical and negative outcomes are The time when people mental decline. doubt, gloom, and despair. normally review their lives and determine whether they have been negative or positive overall.  LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT / LIFE-COURSE PARADIGM Central concepts blend Goal achievement is Life occurs in stages that associated with life elements in psychological are structured according to satisfaction. theories such as life stages, one’s roles, relationships, tasks, and personality internal values, and goals. Individuals must adapt to development with sociological concepts such changed roles and Individuals may choose relationships that occur as role behavior and the their goals but are limited throughout life. interrelationship between by external constraints. individuals and society.  SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION WITH COMPENSATION (BALTES, 1987) Aging individuals become more selective in activities Asserts that individuals Selective optimization with and roles that are most learn to cope with the compensation is a positive satisfying (optimization). functional losses of aging coping process that through processes of facilitates successful aging. They adapt by seeking selection, optimization, and alternatives when functional compensation. limits prohibit sustaining former roles and activities. 01 02 Biological Attempt to explain the physical changes of aging. Try to identify which biologic factors have the Theories greatest influence on longevity. 03 STOCHASTIC or statistical 04 NONSTOCHASTIC theories perspective identifies view aging as a series of episodic events that happen predetermined events throughout one’s life that happening to all organisms cause random cell damage in a timed framework. and accumulate over time, thus causing aging. Stochastic Theories  Stochastic Theories Effects of aging are primarily due to genetic defects, development, environment, and the inborn aging process.  FREE RADICAL THEORY Ø Aging is due to oxidative metabolism and the effects of free radicals Ø Emphasizes the significance of how cells use oxygen. Ø Free radicals are thought to react with proteins, lipids, DNA and RNA, causing cellular damage. Ø Damage accumulates over time and is thought to accelerate aging. Ø Free radicals cause: Ø Extensive cellular damage to DNA Ø Lipid oxidation Ø Gene modulation  FREE RADICAL THEORY Ø Free radicals are suspected to cause damage to the cells, DNA, and the immune system. Ø Excessive free radical accumulation in the body is purported to contribute to the physiologic changes of aging and a variety of diseases, such as arthritis, circulatory diseases, diabetes, and atherosclerosis. Ø Lipofuscin, has been identified to cause a buildup of fatty pigment granules that cause age spots in older adults. Ø The number of free radicals can be reduced by the use of antioxidants, such as vitamins A, C, and E, carotenoids, zinc, selenium, and phytochemicals.  ORGEL / ERROR THEORY Ø Suggests that over time, cells accumulate errors in their DNA and RNA protein synthesis that cause the cell to die. Ø Environmental agents and randomly induced events can cause error, with ultimate cellular changes.  WEAR AND TEAR THEORY Ø Over time, cumulative changes occurring in cells age and damage cellular metabolism. Ø Presumes that the body is similar to a machine, which loses function when its parts wear out. Ø As people age, their cells, tissues, and organs are damaged by internal or external stressors. When enough damage occurs to the body’s parts, overall functioning decreases. Ø This theory also proposes that good health maintenance practices will reduce the rate of wear and tear, resulting in longer and better body function.  CONNECTIVE TISSUE THEORY Ø Also referred to as cross-link theory. Ø Proposes that, over time, biochemical processes create connections between structures not normally connected. Ø Further proposes that cell molecules from DNA and connective tissue interact with free radicals to cause bonds that decrease the ability of tissue to replace itself. This results in the skin changes typically attributed to aging such as dryness, wrinkles, and loss of elasticity. Nonstochastic Theories  Nonstochastic Theories Founded on a programmed perspective that is related to genetics or one’s biological clock. Aging results from a complex structured process and not a series of random events.  PROGRAMMED THEORY Ø As people age, more of their cells start to decide to commit suicide or stop dividing. Ø Hayflick Phenomenon (human fibroblast replicative senescence model) - suggests that cells divide until they can no longer divide, triggering the apoptosis sequence or death of the cell. Ø Human cells age each time they replicate due to the shortening of the telomere. They eventually become too short to allow further division. When telomeres are too short, the gene notes this and causes the cell to die or apoptosize. Ø Telomere – the most distal appendages of the chromosome arms.  GENE / BIOLOGICAL CLOCK THEORY Ø Proposes the existence of one or more harmful genes that activate over time, resulting in the typical changes seen with aging and limiting the life span of the individual. Ø Explains that each cell, or perhaps the entire organism, has a genetically programmed aging code that is stored in the organism’s DNA. Ø Genetic influence predict physical condition, occurrence of disease, cause and age of death, and other factors that contribute to longevity. Ø This theory indicates that there may be genes that trigger youth and general well-being as well as other genes that accelerate cell deterioration.  NEUROENDOCRINE THEORY Ø Describes a change in hormone secretion and how it influences with the aging process. Ø Estrogen decreases thinning of bones, and when women age less estrogen is produced by the ovaries. As women grow older and experience menopause, adipose tissue becomes the major source of estrogen. Ø Growth hormone is part of the process that increases bone and muscle strength. It stimulates the release of insulin-like growth factor produced by the liver. Ø Melatonin is produced by the pineal gland and is thought to be responsible for coordinating seasonal adaptations in the body.  NEUROENDOCRINE THEORY Ø With physiologic aging and also with certain psychiatric disorders, there is increased activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which causes increased plasma cortisol levels. Increased cortisol levels can be linked with several diseases. Ø Studies support that the neuroendocrine system is connected to life span regulation. Ø Suggests that as one ages, there is loss of neuroendocrine transmitter function that is related to the cessation of reproductive cycles as well as the development of mammary and pituitary tumors.  IMMUNOLOGIC/AUTOIMMUNE THEORY Ø Described the normal aging process of humans and animals as being related to faulty immunological function, which is linked to general well-being. Ø There is a decreased immune function in the elderly. Ø Thymus gland shrinks in size and its ability to function. à decrease Ø Resistance to tumor cells decline as one ages. Ø The elderly are more susceptible to infections as well as cancers. More prone to infection such as wound and respiratory infections, as well as nosocomial infections if they are hospitalized. Ø There is also an increases in certain autoantibodies such as rheumatoid factor and a loss of interleukins.  IMMUNOLOGIC/AUTOIMMUNE THEORY Ø Increased exercise causes new growth of muscle fibers, causes increased immunological function, sense of well-being, and level of general health. Ø Supports that a combination of factors influence the prevention and promotion of aging. That there should be a balance between exercising and resting as overdoing exercise can lead to injuries (wear and tear theory of aging). 01 02 IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING Psychological theories Sociological theories – we learn enlighten us about the how support systems, developmental tasks and functionality, activity, and role challenges faced by older engagement, cohorts and adults, and the societal expectations can importance of finding and influence adjustment to aging accepting meaning in and life satisfaction. one’s life. End of Topic Discussion