Lost Tribes and Buried Cities ANT 104 Fall 2024 PDF

LOST TRIBES AND BURIED CITIES ANT 104, FA 2024 Professor: Dr. Kayeleigh Sharp email: [email protected] Chapter 11: The Indus Valley and China Indus Valley Civilization Civilization of Ancient China Understanding Civilization Chapter 11: Lea...

LOST TRIBES AND BURIED CITIES ANT 104, FA 2024 Professor: Dr. Kayeleigh Sharp email: [email protected] Chapter 11: The Indus Valley and China Indus Valley Civilization Civilization of Ancient China Understanding Civilization Chapter 11: Learning Objectives 1. Describe development of Indus Valley civilization 2. List characteristics of early food production in the Indus Valley. 3. Examine details of the Early Harappan. 4. Analyze the archaeology of the Mature Harappan 5. Review points of post-Harappan culture 6. Explore antiquity of civilization of ancient China 7. Explain processes of elite conspicuous consumption 8. Distinguish evidence of diffusionism versus independent origins  What are the major civilizations of the Indus Valley? What are the major civilizations of ancient China? Questions What is elite conspicuous consumption and why did it occur? What is diffusionism in the study of ancient civilizations? Timeline of Civilizations in South Asia and China Timeline: The Indus Valley Harappan groups had exchange networks with other regions. The key to Harappan life was urbanism made possible by the fertile floodplains of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers. Harappa had a system of written communication, although it is not well understood Harappa featured a large geographic area of influence and relative egalitarianism. Archaeological sites in India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan Map: The Indus Valley  Aurochs? A modern question of ethics Extinct, but still around The aurochs is the ancestor of all cattle and thereby the most important animal in the history of mankind. The keystone species for many European ecosystems was hunted to its extinction in 1627. However, its DNA is still alive and distributed among a number of the ancient original cattle breeds. “The Tauros Programme” aims to bring back the aurochs as a functional wild animal, by back-breeding the closest relatives of the original aurochs. Grazing the landscapes of Europe, the aurochs – Europe’s original wild bovine species – once played a vital role in maintaining biodiversity. Today, nearly four centuries after the animal’s extinction, pioneering efforts by Rewilding Europe and Grazelands Rewilding are seeing this beneficial herbivore brought back to life.  Many ecological regions in the Indus Valley Main domesticated plants and animals in the Indus Valley were likely introduced from the Middle East, East Asia, and Africa. Early Food One exception is zebu (humped) cattle, which were Production domesticated in South Asia from local wild aurochs. After 5500 BC, people in this area used pottery vessels, but they were highly mobile pastoralists. During the Chalcolithic period (4300 BC) settlements increased in number and size.  The site of Mehrgarh ( W I K I M E D I A C R E AT I V E C O M M O N S ) Mehrgarh is arelatively well-documented site in the Indus Valley region. W H AT C H A R AC T E R I Z ES Its deposits contain a sequence of development from Neolithic period N EO L I T H I C P E R I O D A N D food-producing economies through the Chalcolithic period and into the C H A LC O L I T H I C P E R I O D ? Early Harappan period.  Many phases, defined by distinct pottery styles, are overlapping and contemporaneous. Varying sizes of sites (some up to 74 acres) may suggest a hierarchy of sites. Economic developments included wheel-made pottery, Early Harappan standardized weights (limestone cubes), and stamp seals. Substantial evidence of urbanism and social classes developing in the Early Harappan also suggest cultural continuity with Mature Harappan. The Kot Diji phase covered an area more than 600 miles wide, with trade networks extending even further. The site of Kot Diji What does this configuration say about early complexity in the Indus Valley? What type of social scenario might you propose based on the evidence below? This small Early Harappan period site in the Lower Indus Valley is characterized by a higher elevation citadel that has large mudbrick buildings surrounded by a perimeter wall. On the lower ground outside the wall were smaller houses built of mudbrick. The settlement appears to have been destroyed by fire (whether deliberate or accidental is not known), but then later occupied during the Mature Harappan period. Located on an ancient channel of the Indus River in Pakistan, Kot Diji was surrounded by a monumental wall whose purpose likely was to keep its residents secure from human enemies as well as the floodwaters of the Indus. (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Karachi)  Characteristics include: more sites, greater population density, more standardization of weights and symbols, and a much larger interaction sphere. Mature Evidence of a three-tiered hierarchical Harappan settlement pattern centered on a few large sites, with a second tier of large settlements, and a (1 of 3) bottom tier of rural villages and pastoral camps. The Harappa site had walled enclosures similar to Mohenjo-daro. At its greatest extent, Harappa covered 370 acres and had a population of 25,000 to 35,000. Mature Harappan (2 of 3) Central places like Together, these Harappa or Mohenjo- central place Interestingly, genetic daro were networks could be and strontium strategically located called city-states. isotope analyses of The Mature Harappan along major rivers; Unlike the city-states human bones from settlement system is resources and ideas of Mesopotamia and Harappan cemeteries described as a central flowed in and out of China, Harappan city- suggest matrilocal place network. these centers to a states were residence, that is, surrounding network characterized by less that husbands moved of secondary centers, warfare and more into the communities villages, and pastoral power sharing among of their wives. camps. high-status groups. Mature Harappan Mohenjo-daro was the largest urban center at 618 acres and anywhere from 20,000 to 40,000 inhabitants. There is no evidence that the citadel and Great Bath of Mohnejo-daro (or granaries of Harappa and Mohenjo- daro) actually served those functions. The heart of Mohenjo Daro One of the two giant cities of Indus Valley civilization. The impressive circular structure that sits on top is a temple added to the site long after the Indus Valley civilization had collapsed. (Saqib Qayyum/Wikimedia Commons)  Urbanization and Its Consequences “... dense concentrations of people almost always create conditions that require group coordination and oversight” (Olszewski 2019:365-366). This coordination is reflected in Harappan street layout and waste-water removal. Urban centers contained walled neighborhoods, each with its own set of elites. Labor specialization is seen in the many distinct workshops. Rural areas contributed wheat, barley, millet, grapes, and dates to the cities. Cotton and hemp provided fibers. Domestic animals provided meat, milk, skins, and wool, and could be used as draught animals and beasts of burden. We are much more removed from the sources of our food than Harappan people, but many aspects of urbanization pioneered by them are still present in our modern lives. Map of Mohenjo-daro: This map exhibits the planned nature of the city with its What aspects of urbanism that link best to the major avenues, parallel and perpendicular streets, and regularly sized buildings present? and rooms. (From M. Wheeler, The Indus Civilization, Fig. 10. Copyright © 2005 Cambridge University Press. Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge University Press.) Indus Valley Civilization - key characteristics LONG-DISTANCE INDUS SCRIPT EXCHANGE The Written Word The Indus script became standardized around 2600 BC and is found on artifacts from more than 60 sites The Indus script is undeciphered, but the contexts in which it is found provide clues as to how it was used. It appears to have been used for short messages (no more than 17 signs) by elites and was carved into bone, ivory, shell, steatite, gold, copper, bronze, and silver. The Written Word (2 of 2) The Indus script developed from earlier potter’s marks There is debate as to whether the script represents an undeciphered language or nonlinguistic symbols.  Inscribed ceramic tiles These tiles were found in excavations at the Indus Valley city of Mohenjo-daro and appear to reflect an early, locally developed form of writing. Though not yet deciphered, the writing appears to represent an accounting of lands, goods, and other materials. (© Charles & Josette Lenars/CORBIS) Resource Networks, Trade, and Exchange The Indus Valley was involved in long-distance trade since at least the Neolithic period. Foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, and possibly rice were introduced from China around 2500 BC. Pearl millet and sorghum arrived, via Mesopotamia, from Africa about 2000 BC. Some researchers call the increased trade during the Mature Harappan the “Middle Asian Interaction Sphere” Proposed Middle Asian Interaction Sphere Map showing the flow of raw materials into Mohenjo Daro and transportation of finished works into the Persian Gulf ( K. L. F E DE R )  Trade likely involved land, rivers, and sea Resource Networks, The standardized weights of Harappan city- states allowed for relatively precise Trade, and measurements of exotic materials. Exchange Some craft were highly standardized and controlled by administrators. Others were more handcrafted, probably designed and produced by smaller kin-based groups.  The religious, social, and political ideologies of people are reflected in their artifacts, structures, and rituals. There are no clearly religious structures in Harappan cities Ideology Ritual images on masks, seals, and figurines include human figures (some with beards, suggesting they are males), tigers, elephants, and rhinoceroses Some faces on terra-cotta figures resemble later depictions of the Hindu god Shiva  During the Late Harappan (after 1900 BC), Mature Harappan urbanism was no longer sustainable and people dispersed into smaller settlements. This unsustainability may have been influenced by environmental Collapse? changes, social and political problems, or diminished exchange networks. After the Mature “Additionally, diminished access to exotics may have affected the Harrapan legitimacy of the elite groups in the cities, leading ultimately to a decline in their power and importance” (Olszewski 2019:369). After 1200 BC, large urban cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were no longer built, but the Harappan people did not disappear—they simply began leaving behind a different archaeological signature. Who was the Priest-King of Mohenjo-daro? Whoever he was, he was able to commission or command this beautiful sculpture and must have been among the highest of the elites at Mohenjo Daro. (Photo by Corbis/ VCG via Getty Images)  Who was the Priest-King of Mohenjo-daro? For this project, form regular groups. Google the “Priest-King of Mohenjo-daro” and jot down answers to the following questions: 1. What do we know about this object? Observe as many features as possible. 2. Do your observations suggest anything about the nature of political systems in early Indus Valley societies? 3. What kinds of archaeological evidence might help us understand who the “Priest-King” was?  Debunking Ancient Aliens (Again) For this project, form regular groups. Mohenjo-daro 1. What do we know about this object? Observe as many features as possible. 2. Do your observations suggest anything about the nature of political systems in early Indus Valley societies? 3. What kinds of archaeological evidence might help us understand who the “Priest-King” was? China Timeline: Yellow and Yangtze Rivers, China Politically complex states developed in several regions of China during the Neolithic. In these Neolithic societies we begin to see symbols that are precursors to later Chinese writing systems. Different regions were economically diverse and founded on different domesticated crops. This chapter focuses on the foundations of state-level societies in the Yellow and Yangtze River areas. Map: Neolithic China Archaeological sites in China where evidence of chiefdoms and early state-level societies have been found Early Food Production Early Neolithic settlements in China date to 8000 BC and have many different sizes, pottery styles, artifact types, and subsistence emphases. Neolithic peoples were sedentary but relied on both wild and domesticated foods. Populations shifted toward sedentism as domesticated crop production increased. Wild rice, millet, and even pigs were utilized for hundreds or thousands of years before being fully domesticated. Before Shang Later Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Bronze Age sites reflect investment in domesticated resources, and growing political complexity. Here, we will focus on three early states in the Middle and Lower Yellow River area: the Yangshao, Longshan, and Erlitou cultures. Yangshao (1 of 2) 5000 – 3000 BC Millet-based farming economy Demonstrated use of Chinese cabbage and some rice, and domesticated pigs, dogs, chickens, cattle, goats, and sheep Yangshao (2 of 2) Villagers of this period continued to fish and collect wild plant and animal species. Evidence for status differences comes from Yangshao culture burials.  Lung-Shan culture (ca. 5000 BP) CIVILIZATION OF § Hang-T’u ANCIENT CHINA § Scapulimancy § Lung-Shan burials Longshan (Lung- shan) Culture 5000-3800BP Characterized by: ◦ Social stratification ◦ Metallurgy and craft specialization ◦ Pre-writing Lung-shan 3000 – 1800 BC; based on farming of domestic millet, rice, and pigs. Beginning of copper and bronze metallurgy Increased political complexity, seen in pottery and jade art, variation in grave goods, and settlement patterns. Centralized authority associated with specific large sites, leading to contested territories, raiding, and defensive measures. Direct evidence of violent conflict: bones of boys and men that show traumatic injuries, including scalping and dismemberment. Evidence for divination via scapulimancy. Lung-shan Burials  Erlitou (1800-1600 BC) § associated with the Early Bronze Age. Civilization of § Emergence of the first Chinese state Ancient China with political control over a larger region. § More centralized and hierarchical than the preceding Longshan Culture.  Erlitou Culture 3800-3600BP Stratification extends beyond just individuals to cities as well Jade and turquoise dragon mosaic from Erlitou burial Erlitou Elites and craftspeople at urban centers did not produce their own food and likely received food as tribute. Erlitou Culture was united by shared white pottery vessel styles and, later, bronze vessels with widespread motifs. The urban center of Erlitou declined in importance after 1600 BC.  Shang Civilization / Shang Dynasty Civilization of (2400 BP) Ancient China § Bronze metallurgy § Royal burials Shang Dynasty 3500-3045BP Centralized state run from a capital city (one of which was Anyang) by elites Importance of Centralization Organization of Labor Control of taxes, trade, and exotic goods Shang China 1600 – 1045 BC Although the exact relationship is unclear, there appears to be cultural continuity between Erlitou and the later Erligang Culture (early Shang; 1600–1400 BC). For example, Erligang continued the ritual use of bronze vessels, hierarchical settlement patterns, tribute payments, and elite control of craft production. Shang China Erligang controlled an interaction sphere much larger than Erlitou’s, and with greater military fortification. Some researchers describe Shang period political organization as states. The Written Word The first Chinese writing appears to be at least partly based on Neolithic signs. Early Shang China writing is mostly related to divination and preserved on animal bones and tortoise shell. Scapulimancy and Writing S CA P U L IMA NCY: T HE U S E OF A N I M AL S HOU L DER BON ES /ORACL E BON ES A N D T U RT L E P L A STRONS I N DI V I N ATION The Written Word Unlike Egyptian and Mesopotamian systems, Chinese writing focused on divining the future. Diviners could interpret the cracks in bone or turtle plastron and reveal the results to Shang kings as a form of ritual guidance. Resource Networks, Trade, and Exchange Natural resources for craft workshops of Zhengzhou and Anyang likely came as tribute from elsewhere in Shang territory. Craft production often focused on turquoise, jade, and bronze. Shang royals acquired exotic cowrie shells and may have redistributed these to elites and favored individuals. During the late Shang, bronze vessels were produced at Anyang and other Shang cities. Cattle bone was a ritually and practically significant material used to make hairpins, awls, arrowheads, shovels, and plaques. Social Life Under Shang control millet and pig farmers had to produce enough for tribute to Shang rulers. Households traced their ancestry patrilineally to a male ancestor who was revered. Some specialized laborers and craftspeople lived near the royal households to remain close to their work, and this proximity also displayed their social importance. Social Life Kings built Shang capital cities based on instructions received from diviniation. Shang kings often had many wives who carried out alliance-building ritual functions and ensured the continuation of the king’s male lineage. Royal burials include an array of bronze and jade weapons and ritual items; also human and animal sacrifices. According to oracle bones, most human sacrificial victims were war captives Ritual and Religion Reverence for male ancestors and gods pervades everything. Recognized deities included the high god Ti, the Yellow River god Ho, and the mountain god Yueh. Interaction with the supernatural was via ritual specialists and diviners Scapulimancy became standardized and more tightly regulated by diviners and kings. Ritual and Religion Ancestor worship in Shang China centered on bronze vessels and yearly cycles of ritual sacrifices: ◦ Sacrifices included pigs, cattle, sheep, dogs, horses, and humans. ◦ Diviners determined the type of sacrifice necessary. Art and Religion Elites controlled access to ritual goods, like bronze vessels used for ancestor veneration Bronze casting of a baby elephant with a little tiger perched on its trunk. Bronze metallurgy played a significant role in the development of ancient Chinese civilization. This bronze work of art dates to more than 3,100 years ago. (© Asian Art & Archaeology, Inc./CORBIS/ Corbis via Getty Images) Warfare and Violence Ceremonial sacrifices constitute a form of violence. Many sacrificial victims were war captives, and other captives became slaves. Shang rulers used warfare for calculated purposes: Protecting borders from outsiders Capturing non-Shang people for use as ritual sacrifices Expanding Shang territory and resources via conquest The Shang military included officers, archers, charioteers, and the use of dogs. Elites had private armies of 3000 to 5000 soldiers that were contributed during war efforts. Female military commanders were rare but not unheard of (see Lady Hao) Beheaded people in a royal burial These people were sacrificed in ceremonies surrounding the death of a member of the royal class of the Shang civilization in China. (Courtesy of the Institute of History and Philology, Academy Sinica) Schematic diagram of a cruciform grave (in the shape of a cross) found in the Xibeigang necropolis in China This and similar Shang Dynasty graves contained, along with the body of the deceased member of the elite class, human retainers to serve them in the afterlife. (Jennifer Davis) One of the 25 “chariot pits” found at Yinxu, China The pit contains the remains of a working chariot, along with the bodies of two horses and two charioteers. (Jennifer Davis) After Shang 1045 BC: Shang state conquered by Western Zhou and their allies Western Zhou leaders assimilated the existing Shang hierarchy. Zhou elites were trained as warriors, and inscribed bronze vessels (trophies) were given to celebrate battle victories. After Shang The second phase of the Zhou dynasty, known as the Eastern Zhou (770–256 B.C.), is subdivided into two periods, the Spring and Autumn period (770–ca. 476 B.C.) and the Warring States period (475–221 B.C.). During the Warring States period, seven major states contended for supreme control of the country, ending with the unification of China under the Qin in 221 B.C. After Shang Imperial China began in 221 BC with the reign of the first sovereign emperor, Qin Shi Huang, founder of the Qin Dynasty China’s last emperor was overthrown in AD 1911, establishing modern China. UNDERSTANDING CIVILIZATION ELITE CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION Close-up of a couple of the soldiers in the terra-cotta army While likely made from a common mold, the faces were detailed to make each one unique. (Peter Morgan/Wikimedia Commons) Museum display of four horses in the terra- cotta army. ( JM HU L LOT/W IK IM EDI A COMMON S ) Writing P I C TO G R A P H I C S Y S T E M W I T H O V E R 5000 CHARACTERS BY THE END OF THE SHANG DYNASTY Qin Dynasty 2221-2207BP Characterized by: ◦Hierarchical government and military system ◦Standardized writing system ◦Public works The 7,000-strong terra- cotta army of the Emperor Ying Zheng Built more than 2,500 years ago for the emperor’s tomb, the terra-cotta army is one of the ancient world’s most ostentatious burial displays. (Jmhullot/Wikimedia Commons) Qin Shi Huang Tomb Complex Understanding Diffusionism Civilization Independent origins  Review of Learning Objectives 1. Indus Valley civilization peaked during the Mature Harappan period. 2. Chinese civilization is ancient and long-lived. 3. Elite conspicuous consumption was a common means of displaying status and wealth in early civilizations. 4. Early civilizations should be understood in terms of independent origins, rather than simply diffusion.  What are the major civilizations of the Indus Valley? What are the major civilizations of ancient China? Questions What is elite conspicuous consumption and why did it occur? What is diffusionism in the study of ancient civilizations?