The Airplane 2024 AZ PDF

Lecture 1 – The Airplane AER 100  The Aeroplane ▪ Definitions ▪ Parts of the Airplane ▪ Aircraft Design ▪ Construction Materials ▪ Aircraft Stresses ▪ Loads and Load Factors  Definitions (From the Canadian Aviation Regulations) Airc...

Lecture 1 – The Airplane AER 100  The Aeroplane ▪ Definitions ▪ Parts of the Airplane ▪ Aircraft Design ▪ Construction Materials ▪ Aircraft Stresses ▪ Loads and Load Factors  Definitions (From the Canadian Aviation Regulations) Aircraft Any machine capable of deriving support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air. Categories of Aircraft Include: Hot Air Blimp/ Glider Helicopter Airplane Balloon Airship  Definitions (From the Canadian Aviation Regulations) Airplane (interchangeable with Aeroplane) A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces that remain fixed under given conditions of flight.  Definitions (From the Canadian Aviation Regulations) Category Aeroplane, Helicopter, Glider, Balloon Type Every airplane is different. Each airplane is known by its specific type. C172 PC-12 B777-200  CLASS Single Multi- Engine Engine Land Sea SEL MES Multi- Single Engine MEL Engine Land Sea SES TYPE  Normal Category Limited to airplanes that have a seating configuration, excluding pilot seats, of nine or less, a maximum certificated take-off weight of 12,500 pounds Beechcraft B58 Baron or less, and intended for non-acrobatic operation.  Utility Category ▪ Same type and size of airplane as normal category but approved for "limited acrobatic operations" this may include intentional spins, as well as chandelles, lazy eights and steep turns with higher bank Cessna C172S Skyhawk angles (greater than 60 degrees, up to 90 degrees).  Aerobatic Category ▪ The same type and size of airplane as Normal Category, but approved for acrobatics without any restrictions "other than those shown to be https:/ /firstaerosquadr on.com/2 014/0 3/30/ intern ational-aerobati cs-champion-patty-wagstaff-joins-fasf-board-of-advi sors/ necessary as a result Extra 300 of required flight tests"  Commuter Category ▪ Maximum takeoff weight of 19,000 lbs ▪ Maximum passenger seating capacity of 19 ▪ Multiple engines Thi s Photo by Unknown A uthor is li censed und er CC BY-S A Beechcraft 1900D  Transport Category ▪ Multi-engine airplanes with more than 19 seats or a maximum takeoff weight greater than 19,000 lbs Thi s Photo by Unknown A uthor is li censed und er C C BY-S A Boeing 737  Limited Category ▪ Applies mostly to aeroplanes that were in military service and are now in civilian service Hanger67.com 1958 de Havilland DH.115 Vampire  Restricted Category ▪ Aircraft used for special applications such as aerial: – Fire-fighting – Survey – Photography – Advertising – Agricultural ▪ Restricted to crew only or crew and support personnel only on https ://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AirTractor_40 2.jpg aircraft Air Tractor AT402  Amateur Built or Experimental Category ▪ Refers to homebuilt aircraft or kitplanes that have been built by their owners and not an aircraft manufacturer Flickr.com Murphy Moose Kitplane  Categories Note: ▪ Do not confuse aircraft categories (airplane, helicopter etc.) with airplane categories (normal, utility, aerobatic etc.)  Classification Airplanes can be classified by a variety of methods… ▪ Wing location ▪ Number of wings ▪ Location & number of engines ▪ Type of undercarriage  Wing Location Dash – 8 High Wing Piaggio Avante Mid Wing Boeing 727 Low Wing  Number of Wings Monoplane Biplane Triplane Location, Number, and Type of Engines Type of Undercarriage The Aeroplane Main Components of an Airplane  Airframe – The term used to describe the complete structure of an airplane (including fuel tanks and lines), but without instruments and engine installed – Includes fuselage, wings,tail and undercarriage  Fuselage ▪ Also known as the body ▪ Designed to accommodate the crew, passengers and cargo ▪ Usually the central structural body to which the wings, tail assembly, landing gear and the engine are attached  Airframe Construction ▪ Full Monocoque ▪ Semi Monocoque ▪ Truss Type – Early Days ▪ constructed of wooden members which were wire braced – Modern ▪ steel tubes which are usually welded or bolted together Truss Type Longerons - Three, four or more long tubes running lengthwise along the fuselage. They are the principle members and are braced to form the frame by vertical or diagonal members.  Truss Frame The whole assembly or frame is in the form of a truss and supports all of the loads and stresses The covering of the fuselage may be fabric, metal or composite (fiberglass)  Pratt Truss https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Pratt_truss.svg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truss_bridge#/media/File:Warren_truss.svg Trusses are made up of triangles, makes them inherently rigid and strong  Semi-Monocoque ◆ Most common type of airframe construction ◆ Generally constructed with aluminum (metal or composite) ◆ Aircraft frame and skin share in aircraft strength; skin can absorb some loads and stresses Components: Bulkheads - partitions dividing an airframe into a separate compartment which help define the fuselage shape Stringers ◆ long strips running lengthwise down fuselage Formers ◆ shape the fuselage  Semi-Monocoque Type ▪ covering capable of carrying some of load is known as stressed skin ▪ a perfect stressed skin would be capable of carrying all of the load and with no need for internal structure, would be full monocoque  Semi Monocoque Type Bulkhead Formers Stringers  Full Monocoque Type ▪ perfect stressed skin ▪ no frame work, skin may be a honeycomb ▪ covering carries all of the loads and stresses ▪ made of composite materials (kevlar, foam, fiberglass) Beechcraft Starship Full Monocoque Type  Wings Structural member of the airplane responsible for the production of lift – also known as lifting surface Wings are also classified based on their Rectangular wing shape Tapered/Swept wing Delta wing Elliptical wing WINGS & CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES 1. Metal Frame / Metal Skin – main strength in the skin (stressed skin) 2. Metal Frame / Metal Skin – main strength in the frame 3. Metal Frame / Fabric Skin  Wings – Construction 4. Wooden Frame / Fabric Skin 5. Wooden Frame / Wood Skin Consider the Transmission of Loads within the wing and/or fuselage Internal Transmission Skin → Ribs → Spars → Fuselage External Transmission Skin → Ribs → Spars → Fuselage Wing Bracing Struts → Fuselage  Wings – Construction ▪ Spar – main members running from wing tip to wing tip – carry most of the loads and stresses – stiffen wing against torsion stress ▪ Ribs – run from leading to trailing edge of wing – gives wing its chambered shape ◆ Compression Struts – steel tubes placed at regular intervals between front and rear spar – designed to absorb compression loads F ◆ Drag and Anti-Drag Wires – tension wires from front to rear spar Cantilever Wing – constructed with no external bracing – spar(s) must be strong enough to carry all loading Semi-Cantilever Wing – constructed WITH external bracing – spar(s) are not strong enough to carry all loading Wing Root – wing section nearest the fuselage – Usually faired in to reduce interference drag Wing Tip - wing section furthest the fuselage Winglet – vertical wing-like structure – Its purpose is to reduce induced drag  ▪ Span – The maximum distance from wing tip to wing tip of an airfoil ▪ Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) – The average chord of the wing ▪ Chord – A straight imaginary line joining the leading and trailing edges of the wing Chord Ailerons – part of an airfoil section – hinged to the rear spar – control roll of aircraft – construction similar to wings Flaps – hinged to the rear spar – described in theory of flight Flap types The Tail Section Variety of Designs…  Empennage - Tail ▪ Vertical Stabilizer ▪ Also known as the ‘fin’ ▪ controls directional stability ▪ Rudder ▪ Moving portion ▪ provides directional control  Empennage - Tail Horizontal Stabilizer ▪ also known as the ‘tail plane’ ▪ controls longitudinal stability Elevator ▪ moving portion (and trim tabs) at trailing edge ▪ provides pitch control Stabilator ▪ on some aircraft in place of a horizontal stabilizer ▪ horizontal stabilizer and elevator combined ▪ Canard – horizontal stabilizer located at front of airplane – A small horizontal surface can allow a reduced size horizontal stabilizer – an example is the Piaggio Avanti  Cruciform Empennage The Tail Section Horn Balance Fin – Vertical Stabilizer Rudder Trim Tab Rudder Horizontal Stabilizer Elevator Pitch Trim Tabs  Trim tabs Small adjustable (on ground or in flight) surfaces used to relieve control pressure – or ‘trim’ the aircraft Landing Gear Elements: Shock Absorbers Low pressure tires Oleo Rubber Spring steel OLEO Disc brakes are used on most modern light aircraft https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m1dv_y_3EK0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mr4V680UQ-k  Stresses Compression – crushing - i.e. wings Tension – stretching - i.e. bracing wires Torsion – twisting – i.e. wings, undercarriage Shearing – cutting – i.e. brake disc Bending – self explanatory - i.e. spar beams  Construction Materials ▪ Steel ▪ Dural ▪ Alclad - Used in seaplanes ▪ Magnesium Alloy - Used in engine construction ▪ Honeycomb Sandwich - Used in cabin floors, doors, radar deck ▪ Composite ▪ Wood ▪ Fabric  Construction Materials ▪ Steel: – Low carbon steel – Mild carbon steel ▪ used for fuselages and control surfaces – Hard carbon steel – Alloy steel ▪ used for stressed skin structures, especially seaplanes ▪ Used in fuselages  Dural ▪ aluminum alloy with copper and magnesium ▪ very high tensile strength ▪ very high fatigue endurance ▪ susceptible to corrosion but can be treated by anodizing ▪ used for ribs, tanks, bulkheads, propeller blades, fittings  Alclad ▪ sandwich of dural between aluminum ▪ aluminum protects dural from corrosion ▪ used in seaplanes  Common Aviation Materials ▪ Anodizing – Coating metal with a protective layer through chemical decomposition by electrolysis ▪ Aluminum Alloys – Copper increases strength but makes it susceptible to corrosion – Manganese makes it stronger and easier to weld. Some is softer and easy to form and can be used in cowlings, spinners and wheel pants – Magnesium makes it stronger but harder to form. Used for fluid lines and some fuel tanks. – Zinc and Silicon are also alloyed in some cases. Aircraft Construction Materials Honeycomb Sandwich: fiberglass, Kevlar and epoxy  Honeycomb Sandwich ▪ metal honeycomb between sheets of metal ▪ high strength / weight ratio ▪ smooth, support structure (fuel tank floor) ▪ used in doors, rigid floors and platforms ▪ used in supersonic a/c wing skins (can dissipate high temperatures)  Wood ▪ structural members ▪ plywood in some cases is used as skin (very smooth finish)  Composite ▪ A composite is made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties ▪ When combined these materials, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components ▪ Individual components remain separate in finished structure ▪ In aircraft often used to combine properties of strength, lightness and fatigue and corrosion resistance © AOPA © Brian Lockett GB1 GameBird Scaled Composites White Knight One  Composite ▪ fiberglass cloth and epoxy resin molded over foam ▪ less weight and stronger than aluminum  Composite Carbon Reinforced Plastic ◆ high strength to weight ratio ◆ good resistance to tension ◆ good rigidity ◆ directional strength ◆ good corrosion resistance Copyright PLANEFOCUS Ltd Eurofighter Typhoon  Composite Parts of Vertical fin Parts of Horizontal tail Winglet A380  Fabric ▪ covers steel tubing fuselage ▪ cotton, linen, synthetic ▪ drawn taught over aircraft with dope or shrunk with hot iron ▪ also used on wings with wood and / or metal spars and ribs ▪ Found on aircraft with truss type construction  Plastic Fairings Interior Used in non-weight bearing structures  AIRCRAFT CORROSION ▪ Oxidation ▪ Intercrystalline ▪ Dissimilar metals ▪ Stress corrosion ▪ Fretting corrosion ▪ Treatments: aluminum alloys anodize, steel parts are cadmium or chrome plated  Aircraft Corrosion ▪ Oxidation – a chemical reaction to moisture in the air – worse near salt water ▪ Intercrystalline – more serious – chemical or electrolytic reactions between alloys – hard to detect since may be internal  Aircraft Corrosion ▪ Dissimilar Metals – metals with different chemical properties react with moisture in the air – the metal most susceptible to By D3j4vu at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14988898 oxidation will corrode  Aircraft Corrosion ▪ Stress Corrosion – difficult to detect until metal cracks – it has a cumulative effect ▪ Corrosion Fatigue – stress corrosion occurs and moisture penetrates crack causing oxidation  Aircraft Corrosion ▪ Fretting Corrosion – slight movement between metal parts – protective film on metals wears (can lead to oxidation) for example between anodized parts where the anodization is worn off  Corrosion Treatments ▪ individual parts are treated before assembly ▪ anodize aluminum alloys ▪ steel parts are cadmium plated, chrome plated or given a phosphate process Corrosion https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=inV-XepvtQo  Stress ▪ force or combination of forces exerting a load or pressure  Stress ▪ Types ◆ General Information 1. Compression – aircraft must withstand 2. Tension stresses but be light 3. Torsion – must have rigidity to 4. Shearing prevent flutter 5. Bending – designers and engineers must compromise in order to achieve a balance  Strain ▪ distortion of a body due to stress https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ai2HmvAXcU0 Metal Fatigue https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TH9k9fWaFrs  Aloha Airlines Flight 243 Metal fatigue resulted in failure of fuselage at a lap joint  LOAD and LOAD FACTOR ▪ Aircraft strength is measured by the total load the wings can carry ▪ Wings must support weight of aircraft plus loading during maneuvering ▪ Wings must also support weight from unexpected loading from gusts etc. ▪ Loads must be shared by all parts of the aircraft – distributed around a/c by design  Wing Loading Gross Weight / Area of Lifting Surface (lbs / ft2) Example: C-150 1600 lbs / 160 ft2 = 10.0 lbs / ft2 Example: C-172S 2550 lbs / 174 ft2 = 14.65 lbs / ft2  Span Loading Gross Weight / Wing Span (lb / ft) Example: C-172 2300 lbs / 36 ft-1”= 63.88 lb / ft Example: Spitfire 7320 lbs / 36 ft-10”= 198.75 lb / ft  Power Loading Gross Weight / Brake Horse Power (BHP) Example: C-150 1600 lbs / 100 BHP = 16 lbs / BHP  Load and Load Factor ▪ Dead Load – weight of aircraft alone, on the ground ▪ Live Load – additional loading imposed by acceleration – can change in flight due to gusts or sudden change in direction – Rapid transition to a climb – Steep turn or spiral dive  Load and Load Factor ▪ Actual Load / Gross Weight OR ▪ Live Load / Dead Load – expressed as multiple of aircraft’s weight – in level flight, the load factor is 1.0 g – aircraft are designed to withstand relatively high load factors Example: C-150 +4.4g → - 1.76g ▪ Ultimate Load Factor – structural failure will occur – for utility category airplanes, ultimate load factor is equal to 1.5 the maximum normal load factor – C-172: 150%  4.4g = 6.6g – normally wings will detach from aircraft ▪ Yield Load Factor – approximately 2/3 of ultimate load factor – permanent distortion of structure will occur ▪ Gust Loads – rapid changes in air currents – result in a sudden increase in lift due to changing airflow direction to avoid high gust loading, reduce airspeed to maneuvering speed in rough air ▪ Pilots should consider stresses when executing high load factor maneuvers such as steep turns or spiral dives in combination with other factors such as gusts ▪ Weight alone imposes high load factors  Maneuvering Speed Va ▪ The maximum speed at which abrupt full control travel may be used without exceeding design limit load factor or damaging the aircraft ▪ Example: C-172 105 kts @ 2550 lbs 98 kts @ 2300 lbs 95 kts @ 2100 lbs  ACTIVITY 1 Describe the following aircraft: A) B)  ACTIVITY 2 Design the following aircraft based on the following operational requirements: - Mountain flying near open water - Gravel and grass runways - Heavy payloads - Operated by small – medium companies (hint less $$)  Readings ▪ FTGU: Chapter 1 – The Airplane ▪ Next: Theory of Flight