Principles, Methods & Developments in Aquaculture PDF

CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS ON INTRODUCTION TO AQUACULTURE Adrian C. Dela Cruz, RFP College of Fisheries Central Luzon State University Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Aquaculture Fishery...

CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS ON INTRODUCTION TO AQUACULTURE Adrian C. Dela Cruz, RFP College of Fisheries Central Luzon State University Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Aquaculture Fishery operations involving all forms of raising and culturing fish and other fishery species in fresh, brackish and marine water areas (RA 8550) 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Aquaculture FAO (1990) defined aquaculture as "the farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Aquatic animals are dependent directly or indirectly upon plants for food. Direct Dependence: ▪Primary Producers: Aquatic plants and phytoplankton are primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. They perform photosynthesis, converting sunlight into energy and producing organic matter that forms the base of the food web. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Aquatic animals are dependent directly or indirectly upon plants for food. Direct Dependence: ▪Herbivores: Many aquatic animals, such as some fish, turtles, and manatees, directly consume aquatic plants and algae. These plants serve as their primary food source. For example, manatees feed on seagrass and other submerged vegetation. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Aquatic animals are dependent directly or indirectly upon plants for food. Indirect Dependence: ▪Food Chain: Carnivorous and omnivorous aquatic animals rely indirectly on plants through the food chain. Small herbivorous fish eat phytoplankton and algae. Larger fish then eat these smaller fish, and so on up the food chain. Thus, even top predators depend on plants for their energy, albeit indirectly. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Aquatic animals are dependent directly or indirectly upon plants for food. Indirect Dependence: ▪Detritus: Dead plant material and algae contribute to the detritus that many aquatic organisms feed on. Detritivores, such as certain types of worms, crustaceans, and some fish, consume decomposing plant matter and organic material, which are rich in nutrients. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The ability of water to produce plants is dependent upon the presence of sunlight, temperature, carbon dioxide, nutrients. Sunlight - Plants require sunlight for photosynthesis, the process by which they convert light energy into chemical energy to fuel their growth and development. Temperature - The rate of plant growth and metabolic processes are influenced by temperature. Optimal temperature ranges are crucial for enzymatic activities and overall plant health. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The ability of water to produce plants is dependent upon the presence of sunlight, temperature, carbon dioxide, nutrients. Carbon dioxide - Carbon dioxide is a key ingredient in photosynthesis. Plants take in CO₂ from the atmosphere and, using sunlight, convert it into glucose and oxygen. Nutrients - Essential nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are required for plant growth. These nutrients are absorbed from the soil through water and are vital for various physiological functions. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The ability of water to produce plants is dependent upon the presence of sunlight, temperature, carbon dioxide, nutrients. Nutrients Major: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), Potassium (K) Secondary: Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sulfur (S) Minor: (Al), (Bo), (Ba), (Co), (Cl), (Cu), (Fe), (Mn), (Mo), (Na), (Zn) 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Natural fertility of water is largely dependent upon fertility of soils in the bottom, the watershed, and the quality of brackishwater added. Fertility of Bottom Soils: The nutrients present in the sediments at the bottom of a water body contribute to its fertility. Rich soils can release essential nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus into the water, supporting the growth of aquatic plants and microorganisms. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Natural fertility of water is largely dependent upon fertility of soils in the bottom, the watershed, and the quality of brackishwater added. Watershed Fertility: The watershed, which is the land area surrounding and draining into a water body, impacts water fertility. Fertile watersheds provide a steady supply of nutrients through runoff. Activities like agriculture and vegetation in the watershed can enhance nutrient levels, benefiting the aquatic ecosystem. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Natural fertility of water is largely dependent upon fertility of soils in the bottom, the watershed, and the quality of brackishwater added. Quality of Brackishwater: The addition of brackish water (a mix of fresh and saltwater) can influence water fertility. The quality of this brackishwater, in terms of its nutrient content and salinity, affects the overall nutrient balance and fertility of the water body it mixes with. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Water fertility may be increased by adding inorganic fertilizers, organic fertilizers, or both. Inorganic Fertilizers: These are commercially produced and typically contain concentrated forms of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Adding these to water can quickly boost nutrient levels, promoting the growth of algae and other aquatic plants. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Water fertility may be increased by adding inorganic fertilizers, organic fertilizers, or both. Organic Fertilizers: These include natural materials like compost, manure, and plant residues. They release nutrients more slowly as they decompose, providing a steady supply of nutrients over time and improving the overall health of the aquatic ecosystem. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Water fertility may be increased by adding inorganic fertilizers, organic fertilizers, or both. Combined Use: Using both inorganic and organic fertilizers can offer the immediate nutrient availability of inorganic fertilizers and the long-term benefits of organic fertilizers. This combination can lead to more sustained and balanced aquatic productivity. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Commercial Inorganic Fertilizers ▪ Urea (46-0-0) ▪ Ammonium sulfate (21-0-0) ▪ Solophos (0-18-0 / 0-20-0) ▪ Triple superphosphate (0-46-0) ▪ Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0) ▪ Diammonium phosphate (18-46-0) ▪ Complete fertilizer (14-14-14 / 20-20-20) 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Fertilization takes effect efficiently and rapidly during sunny days rather than during rainy days or prolonged overcast or cloudy sky. Photosynthesis: On sunny days, plants engage in more active photosynthesis, the process through which they convert sunlight into energy. This increased photosynthetic activity boosts the plants' overall metabolic processes, including nutrient uptake from the soil. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Fertilization takes effect efficiently and rapidly during sunny days rather than during rainy days or prolonged overcast or cloudy sky. Temperature: Warmer temperatures on sunny days enhance microbial activity, which can aid in the conversion of inorganic fertilizers into forms that plants can readily absorb. Higher temperatures also speed up plant metabolism, increasing the demand and uptake of nutrients. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Fertilization takes effect efficiently and rapidly during sunny days rather than during rainy days or prolonged overcast or cloudy sky. Reduced Leaching and Runoff: Rainy conditions can cause fertilizers to be washed away, reducing their effectiveness. Overcast or cloudy weather often accompanies high moisture levels, which can dilute the concentration of fertilizers in the soil. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture A species of fish that has a large maximum size potential will theoretically grow at a faster rate than that one with a small maximum size potential. Larger species need to grow more rapidly during their juvenile stages to reach a size that allows them to compete for resources, avoid predators, and reproduce. Additionally, larger species often have higher metabolic rates and energy demands, which drive faster growth rates to support their larger body size. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture A species of fish that has a large maximum size potential will theoretically grow at a faster rate than that one with a small maximum size potential. Species with smaller maximum size potential typically do not require as rapid growth because their smaller size demands less energy, and they reach maturity sooner. Therefore, their growth rates are generally slower compared to species that grow to be much larger. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The longer the food chain the greater the energy loss; the shorter the chain the greater the production. In ecological food chains, energy transfer occurs from one trophic level (e.g., producers, herbivores, carnivores) to the next. However, only a small percentage of energy (approximately 10%) is transferred from one level to the next, while the rest is lost primarily as heat due to metabolic processes. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Carrying capacities per unit area are different for different species depending on the trophic level of the species. Primary Producers (Plants): They have the highest carrying capacity per unit area because they convert solar energy directly into biomass through photosynthesis. There is an abundant energy supply available at this level. Primary Consumers (Herbivores): These organisms feed on plants. The carrying capacity for herbivores is lower than for plants because energy is lost when it moves from plants to herbivores. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Carrying capacities per unit area are different for different species depending on the trophic level of the species. Secondary and Tertiary Consumers (Carnivores and Top Predators): These animals feed on herbivores or other carnivores. Each step up of the trophic levels involves a significant loss of energy (again, roughly 90%), resulting in even lower carrying capacities. Thus, there are fewer carnivores than herbivores that an area can support. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The greater weight per area is obtained by raising a combination of forage species differing in food habits. Different species often occupy different niches and consume various types of food, reducing direct competition for the same food sources. This can result in better overall utilization of the food web, leading to higher productivity and biomass accumulation in the same area. Essentially, the diversity in food habits ensures that different types of food resources are consumed and converted into fish biomass more effectively, thus increasing the total weight of fish produced per unit area. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Carrying capacity of a given body of water can be increased by addition of feeds either through supplemental or complete feeding. Supplemental Feeding: This involves providing additional nutrients to the natural food available in the water. It helps to support a larger population by compensating for any deficiencies in the natural diet. Complete Feeding: This involves providing all the necessary nutrients that the organisms need, essentially replacing their natural diet. This can significantly boost growth rates and biomass production, allowing for a higher 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Feeding at maintenance rate or less is usually not economical. Feeding at maintenance rate or less means providing just enough food to maintain an animal's current weight and health without promoting any significant growth or productivity. This approach is typically not economical because it doesn't maximize the potential of the animal for growth, productivity, or other desired outcomes. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Feeding at satiety or in satiation rate (all fish have the chance to eat) is not economical. Feeding fish until they're fully satisfied or at a rate where all fish get a chance to eat may seem fair, but it's not economically efficient. When fish are overfed, excess feed is wasted, leading to unnecessary costs for the fish farmer. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Small fish require more food (i.e. higher feeding rate) per unit body weight or per gram body weight than larger fish of the same species do (i.e. lower feeding rate). In terms of total body weight, however, the larger fish consume more amount of food than the small For ones small fish,do. their metabolism tends to be faster, so they require more food relative to their body weight to sustain their energy needs. This means they have a higher feeding rate per unit body weight compared to larger fish of the same species. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Small fish require more food (i.e. higher feeding rate) per unit body weight or per gram body weight than larger fish of the same species do (i.e. lower feeding rate). In terms of total body weight, however, the larger fish consume more amount of food than the small Whenones do. considering the total amount of food consumed, larger fish consume more food overall because of their greater body size. Even though their feeding rate per unit body weight is lower, their larger size means they still consume more food in absolute terms. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Organic matter resulting from digested, undigested, and uneaten feed are waste products in the water, producing ammonia (NH3), protein fractions, carbohydrates, fatty acids, CO2, and salts such as Ca, Mg, K and PO4. These substances can affect water quality and potentially harm aquatic life if present in excessive amounts. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Quality and quantity of feeds influence the amount of wastes, growth rate of fish, health of the fish, and cost of fish production. Amount of Wastes: The quality and quantity of feeds directly affect how much waste is produced by the fish. If the feed is not efficiently utilized by the fish, it can lead to excess waste production, which can degrade water quality and harm the aquatic environment. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Quality and quantity of feeds influence the amount of wastes, growth rate of fish, health of the fish, and cost of fish production. Growth Rate of Fish: The nutrients provided by the feeds are essential for the growth and development of fish. A balanced diet with high-quality feeds in the right quantity can promote optimal growth rates, resulting in healthier and more robust fish. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Quality and quantity of feeds influence the amount of wastes, growth rate of fish, health of the fish, and cost of fish production. Health of the Fish: Proper nutrition is crucial for maintaining the overall health and well-being of fish. Feeds that lack essential nutrients or contain contaminants can lead to nutritional deficiencies, diseases, and compromised immune systems. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Quality and quantity of feeds influence the amount of wastes, growth rate of fish, health of the fish, and cost of fish production. Cost of Fish Production: The choice of feeds directly impacts the cost of fish production. High-quality feeds may be more expensive upfront but can lead to better growth rates, lower mortality rates, and overall higher productivity, potentially offsetting the initial investment. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The higher the quality of feed given at the right or required feeding rate the greater the carrying capacity per unit area of water. Essentially, if high-quality feed is provided at the appropriate rate, it can support a larger population of aquatic organisms in a given area of water. This indicates that proper feeding practices can optimize the productivity and sustainability of aquaculture systems. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Growth rate of fish varies greatly depending upon the quantity of food available, quality of food, water quality, and waste disposal system: biological (phytoplankton), physical (flowing water through the area), and mechanical (aerators or agitators), health of fish, genetic potential for growth Quantity and quality of food: The amount and nutritional value of food available directly affect how fast fish can grow. A diet rich in essential nutrients promotes faster growth. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Growth rate of fish varies greatly depending upon the quantity of food available, quality of food, water quality, and waste disposal system: biological (phytoplankton), physical (flowing water through the area), and mechanical (aerators or agitators), health of fish, genetic potential for growth Water quality: Clean water with optimal pH, temperature, oxygen levels, and absence of pollutants is crucial for fish health and growth. Poor water quality can stress fish and hinder their growth. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Growth rate of fish varies greatly depending upon the quantity of food available, quality of food, water quality, and waste disposal system: biological (phytoplankton), physical (flowing water through the area), and mechanical (aerators or agitators), health of fish, genetic potential for growth Waste disposal system: Efficient waste management systems are necessary to maintain water quality. Biological, physical, and mechanical methods can be employed to remove waste and maintain a healthy environment for fish growth. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Growth rate of fish varies greatly depending upon the quantity of food available, quality of food, water quality, and waste disposal system: biological (phytoplankton), physical (flowing water through the area), and mechanical (aerators or agitators), health of fish, genetic potential for growth Health of fish: Disease, parasites, and injuries can slow down growth. Regular monitoring and proper healthcare measures are essential to ensure fish remain healthy and grow optimally. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Growth rate of fish varies greatly depending upon the quantity of food available, quality of food, water quality, and waste disposal system: biological (phytoplankton), physical (flowing water through the area), and mechanical (aerators or agitators), health of fish, genetic potential for growth Genetic potential: Different species and strains of fish have varying genetic potential for growth. Selective breeding and genetic manipulation can enhance growth rates in aquaculture. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Amount of protein required in the diet for maximum growth of fish/shrimp varies with the species, age of the fish, salinity, temperature, energy of the diet (if energy content of the diet is high, requirement on protein is proportionately at low level), and availability of natural food in the fish culture area (if natural food is abundant, requirement for protein is low). Species: Different species have different dietary requirements due to variations in their physiology and metabolism. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Amount of protein required in the diet for maximum growth of fish/shrimp varies with the species, age of the fish, salinity, temperature, energy of the diet (if energy content of the diet is high, requirement on protein is proportionately at low level), and availability of natural food in the fish culture area (if natural food is abundant, requirement for protein is low). Age: The nutritional needs of fish and shrimp change as they grow and develop. Younger individuals typically require more protein for growth. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Amount of protein required in the diet for maximum growth of fish/shrimp varies with the species, age of the fish, salinity, temperature, energy of the diet (if energy content of the diet is high, requirement on protein is proportionately at low level), and availability of natural food in the fish culture area (if natural food is abundant, requirement for protein is low). Salinity: The salt content of the water, or salinity, can influence the metabolic rate and nutrient utilization of aquatic organisms, affecting their protein requirements. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Amount of protein required in the diet for maximum growth of fish/shrimp varies with the species, age of the fish, salinity, temperature, energy of the diet (if energy content of the diet is high, requirement on protein is proportionately at low level), and availability of natural food in the fish culture area (if natural food is abundant, requirement for protein is low). Temperature: Temperature affects the metabolic rate of fish and shrimp. Warmer temperatures generally increase metabolic activity, potentially increasing the need for protein. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Amount of protein required in the diet for maximum growth of fish/shrimp varies with the species, age of the fish, salinity, temperature, energy of the diet (if energy content of the diet is high, requirement on protein is proportionately at low level), and availability of natural food in the fish culture area (if natural food is abundant, requirement for protein is low). Energy Content of the Diet: If the diet is rich in energy, the requirement for protein may decrease proportionately, as energy can be used for growth instead. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Amount of protein required in the diet for maximum growth of fish/shrimp varies with the species, age of the fish, salinity, temperature, energy of the diet (if energy content of the diet is high, requirement on protein is proportionately at low level), and availability of natural food in the fish culture area (if natural food is abundant, requirement for protein is low). Availability of Natural Food: If natural food sources are abundant in the fish culture area, the requirement for protein in the diet may be lower, as the fish or shrimp can obtain essential nutrients from their environment. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Cultured species of aquatic organisms poorly response in growth with highly acidic (low pH) and highly alkaline (high pH) condition of soil and water. When the pH of the soil or water is either very low (acidic) or very high (alkaline), these organisms struggle to grow optimally. pH levels outside of their preferred range can disrupt their physiological processes, leading to poor growth and development. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Cultured species of aquatic organisms poorly response in growth with highly acidic (low pH) and highly alkaline (high pH) condition of soil and water. Acidic conditions can corrode the shells of shellfish. Their shells are primarily composed of calcium carbonate, which can dissolve in acidic water, weakening the shells and making the shellfish more vulnerable to predators and environmental stressors. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The amount of food required to maintain a given weight of fish is less than that required for growth. Once a fish has reached a certain size or weight, it doesn't need as much food to maintain that size as it did to reach it in the first place. This concept is important in aquaculture and fish farming, where optimizing feed efficiency is essential for economic and environmental sustainability. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture When the amount of food per fish drops below optimum levels or D.O. drops below optimum levels due to high rates of feeding, the growth rate will continue to decline with a decline in food availability per fish until growth stops. Insufficient food or low oxygen levels impede the fish's ability to grow optimally, eventually halting growth entirely. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The use of carnivorous fish species to control fish density will increase average growth rate and percent of harvestable fish but will decrease the total yield. Increased average growth rate and percent of harvestable fish: By preying on smaller or weaker fish, the carnivorous species can thin out the population, allowing the remaining fish more access to resources like food and space. This reduced competition can lead to faster growth rates and a higher percentage of fish reaching a size suitable for harvest. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The use of carnivorous fish species to control fish density will increase average growth rate and percent of harvestable fish but will decrease the total yield. Decreased total yield: This happens because the predatory fish not only consume smaller or weaker individuals but also reduce the total number of fish in the ecosystem. As a result, while the remaining fish may grow faster and be more suitable for harvest, there are fewer of them overall, leading to a lower total yield. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture Maximum potential yield will be highest in water that has the highest carrying capacity. In mono-harvest systems, net yield can never be greater than the carrying capacity of a unit of water in one culture period. The productivity of an aquaculture system is ultimately limited by the carrying capacity of the water for that particular species or crop. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Principles of Aquaculture The more fish per unit area the greater the parasite and disease problem. This is often observed in crowded aquaculture settings or densely populated natural habitats where the close proximity of fish makes it easier for parasites and diseases to spread among them. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Types of culture systems relative to confinement Pond culture – for milkfish, shrimp, seabass, siganid, tilapia, catfish, etc. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Types of culture systems relative to confinement Cage/Pen culture – for milkfish, grouper, seabass, siganid, snapper, tilapia, etc. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Types of culture systems relative to confinement Raceway culture – for milkfish, grouper, seabass, siganid, snapper, tilapia, etc. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Types of culture systems relative to confinement Recirculating aquaculture system– for tilapia, trout, salmon, catfish, shrimp, etc. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Types of culture systems relative to confinement Raft culture – for mussel, oyster 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Monoculture (single species) – either saline tilapia, milkfish, siganid, shrimp, prawn, or any other single species Advantages: ▪ Higher Yield: Monoculture can often lead to higher yields of the desired fish species since the environment can be optimized specifically for that species' needs, such as temperature, water quality, and feeding regimes. ▪ Uniformity: Cultivating a single species allows for uniform growth conditions, leading to more consistent growth rates and sizes among the fish. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Monoculture (single species) – either saline tilapia, milkfish, siganid, shrimp, prawn, or any other single species Advantages: ▪ Ease of Management: Managing a single species is often simpler than managing multiple species with potentially conflicting requirements. This can reduce the complexity of farm operations and lower the risk of disease transmission between species. ▪ Market Demand: Monoculture allows farmers to focus on meeting the specific demands of the market for a particular fish species, potentially leading to higher profits. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Monoculture (single species) – either saline tilapia, milkfish, siganid, shrimp, prawn, or any other single species Disadvantages: ▪ Disease Susceptibility: Monoculture can increase the risk of disease outbreaks since a single pathogen can spread rapidly throughout the entire population without the presence of other species to act as a buffer or natural control. ▪ Environmental Impact: Intensive monoculture systems may lead to environmental degradation, including pollution from excess feed and waste, habitat destruction, and depletion of wild fish stocks used for feed. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Monoculture (single species) – either saline tilapia, milkfish, siganid, shrimp, prawn, or any other single species Disadvantages: ▪ Genetic Homogeneity: Cultivating a single species in large numbers can lead to genetic homogeneity within the population, making it more vulnerable to diseases and environmental changes. ▪ Risk of Market Volatility: Relying solely on one species makes the farm vulnerable to market fluctuations and changes in consumer preferences. A collapse in the market for that species could lead to significant financial losses. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Monoculture (single species) – either saline tilapia, milkfish, siganid, shrimp, prawn, or any other single species Disadvantages: ▪ Nutrient Imbalance: Monoculture systems may disrupt the ecological balance by concentrating nutrients in one area, leading to issues such as algae blooms and oxygen depletion in water bodies. ▪ Lack of Biodiversity: Monoculture systems contribute to the loss of biodiversity in aquaculture operations, which can have cascading effects on ecosystem health and resilience. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Polyculture (2 or more species) ✔ shrimp and milkfish (shrimp is main crop; milkfish is janitor). ✔ grouper, mudcrab and saline tilapia (grouper is main crop; mudcrab is janitor; and tilapia provides fingerlings as food of the grouper and the same time as janitor fish). 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Polyculture (2 or more species) Advantages ▪ Disease Control: Different species may have varying susceptibility to diseases. By cultivating multiple species, the risk of an entire population being wiped out by a single disease outbreak is reduced. ▪ Resource Utilization: Different species occupy different ecological niches and have varied diets. This allows for more efficient utilization of available resources such as food and space within the aquaculture system. ▪ Biological Control: Some fish species may prey on pests or unwanted species, providing a form of biological control within the system. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Polyculture (2 or more species) Advantages ▪ Stability: Polyculture systems tend to be more stable than monoculture systems. If one species faces challenges due to environmental changes or market fluctuations, other species may compensate, reducing the overall risk. ▪ Increased Biodiversity: Polyculture promotes biodiversity within aquaculture systems, which can have positive ecological impacts and contribute to conservation efforts. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Polyculture (2 or more species) Disadvantages ▪ Competitive Interactions: Different species may compete for resources such as food, space, and oxygen, leading to reduced growth rates or even mortality, particularly if the species have similar ecological requirements. ▪ Predation: Certain species may prey on others within the system, leading to losses if not properly managed. ▪ Complex Management: Managing multiple species in the same system requires a higher level of expertise and monitoring compared to monoculture systems. Factors such as stocking densities, feeding regimes, and environmental conditions must be carefully balanced for each species. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Polyculture (2 or more species) Disadvantages ▪ Marketability: Marketing mixed species products may be more challenging than marketing a single species. Consumers may have preferences for specific species, and the presence of multiple species in a product could affect market acceptance or pricing. ▪ Differential Growth Rates: Species within a polyculture system may exhibit different growth rates, making it challenging to optimize feeding and harvesting schedules to maximize overall productivity. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Integrated farming – livestock + fish ; fish + chicks The excreta of the livestock/ chicks and the feeds spilled-out from the feeding tray fall directly on the pond and serve to induce the growth of plankton and feed the fish, respectively. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to species combination Integrated farming systems combining fish and livestock offer significant advantages in terms of resource efficiency, productivity, economic stability, environmental benefits, and sustainability. However, these systems also come with challenges, including complexity, initial costs, disease risk, environmental management issues, and economic uncertainties. Farmers considering integrated farming must weigh these factors carefully and plan accordingly to optimize the benefits while minimizing the drawbacks. Note: Contrary to the common belief of feeding fish with livestock or chicken excreta, it should instead be used as fertilizer to promote the growth of natural food in the pond. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to levels of production Extensive culture – rely mainly on natural food productivity (or used natural food exclusively) low stocking density (e.g. 2,000-3,000 fish/ha for bangus, 5,000-30,000 fish/ha for tilapia) minimal investment low yield 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to levels of production Modified extensive – rely on natural food with supplemental energy-rich feed a bit higher on stocking density (4,000-6,000 fish/ha bangus) in the same area as in the extensive culture a bit higher investment a bit higher yield 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to levels of production Semi-intensive culture – fed with protein-rich feed with some natural food higher stocking density (8-12 thousand/ha bangus, 40,000-60,000/ha tilapia) in the same area as in the extensive culture higher investment higher yield 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to levels of production Intensive culture – rely exclusively on complete feeding, i.e. feeding daily with higher amount of formulated balanced feeds at higher feeding rate extensive aeration and water management highest stocking density (>15 thousand/ha bangus, 70,000-100,000/ha tilapia) in the same area as the other three culture levels very high investment very high yield 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food Plankton method – fish are reared with plankton as the principal food. The fish may be given supplemental artificial feeds. ▪ Plankton – are suspended microscopic plants and animals (phyto and zoo) growing within the water column, most especially in the upper or surface layer. These natural food passively drift with and float in the water. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food The plant (phyto) component of the plankton include the: o green algae (ex. Scenedesmus, Chlorella, Pandorina, Coelastrum, Ankistrodesmus, Pandorina, Pediastrum, Selenastrum, Closterium, Dictyosphaerium, Oocystis, etc) 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food The plant (phyto) component of the plankton include the: o blue-green algae (ex. Microcystis, Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Aphanozomenon, and Spirulina) 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food The plant (phyto) component of the plankton include the: o diatoms ( ex. Nitzschia, Navicula, Flagilaria, Cyclotella, and Synedra) 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food The plant (phyto) component of the plankton include the: o Euglenoids (ex. Euglena, Phacus, and Trachelomonas) 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food The plant (phyto) component of the plankton include the: o dinoflagellates (ex. Ceratium and Gymnodinium) 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food Lablab method – fish are reared with lablab as the main food. Likewise, fish may be given supplemental artificial feeds. ▪ Lablab (Aufwuch) – is an association of phytoplankters, zooplankters, filamentous algae and worms growing at the bottom surface of pond. Since they grow at the bottom and so they are called benthic algae. The plant component of lablab are: 1) diatoms (ex. Navicula, Nitzschia, Mastogloia, Amphora, and Stauroneis) and 2) blue-green algae (ex. Lyngbya, Phormidium, Spirulina, Oscillatoria, and Micrococcus). The animal components include Moina, Dahpnia, eggs and larvae of finfishes, crustaceans, mollusks, and insects. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food Lablab method 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food Lumut method – fish are reared with filamentous grass green algae (lumut) as their principal food. Likewise, fish may be reared with supplemental feeds. Lumut – are filamentous grass green algae that start to grow at the bottom surface of pond and continue to grow up to water surface. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food Three kinds of “Lumut”: Chaetomorpha linum (Lumutjusi) – unbranched filamentous grass green alga. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food Three kinds of “Lumut”: Cladophora – branched filamentous grass green alga. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to natural food Three kinds of “Lumut”: Ulva (Enteromorpha) intestinalis/tubulosa (Bitukangmanok) – an alga which looks like a pancit when it is still young, and which looks like an intestine of a fowl when it is in its adult stage. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Monosex culture: This refers to rearing of either the female or the male individuals alone to prevent increase of recruits. or allowable number of stocks. This method is mostly and widely adopted in tilapia species. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Monosex culture – Why is it done? Improved Growth Rates: In many species, one sex grows faster or reaches a larger size than the other. For example, in tilapia, male fish typically grow faster and larger than females. By culturing only the faster-growing sex, farmers can increase productivity and efficiency. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Monosex culture – Why is it done? Uniformity: Monosex populations tend to be more uniform in size and growth rates, making management, harvesting, and marketing easier. This uniformity can also reduce the incidence of aggression and competition among fish, leading to more stable and predictable yields. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Monosex culture – Why is it done? Reproductive Control: In mixed-sex populations, fish may breed uncontrollably, leading to overpopulation, competition for resources, and stunted growth. Monosex culture prevents unwanted reproduction, ensuring that the energy of the fish is directed towards growth rather than reproduction. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Monosex culture – Why is it done? Efficient Use of Resources: Since monosex populations often result in better growth rates and size uniformity, the feed conversion ratio (amount of feed required to produce a unit of fish biomass) tends to be more favorable. This means that resources such as feed are used more efficiently, reducing costs and environmental impact. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Monosex culture – Why is it done? Market Preferences: Some markets have a preference for one sex over the other due to cultural, culinary, or economic reasons. For example, larger fish might fetch higher prices, or certain genders might be preferred for their flavor or texture. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Methods of Monosex culture ▪ Manual sexing – is separating male tilapia from female tilapia. Male tilapias are the ones to be reared to large size or marketable size because they are relatively larger in size and grow faster than their female counterparts. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Methods of Monosex culture ▪ Hybridization – is the crossing of two different species within the same genus ▪ Guver is the cross between Siganus guttatus female and S. vermiculatus male. Vergu is the cross between S. vermiculatus female and S. guttatus male. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Methods of Monosex culture ▪ Sex reversal – is the process of converting genetic female (in tilapias) into functional males. ▪ androgen hormone known as 17 α-Methyltestosterone (or MT) and ethyl alcohol (EA) ▪ mixing ratio of 40 microgram MT : 80 ml EA : 1 kg feed. ▪ The fry are fed for 21–25 days. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Methods of Monosex culture ▪ Genetic manipulation of sex – with this method, production of all-male tilapia can be attained with the use of YY male technology. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish Methods of Monosex culture ▪ Genetic manipulation of sex ❑ Triploidy method. This is a genetic manipulation technique used to produce fish with three sets of chromosomes instead of the usual two (diploidy). This is typically achieved through the application of physical or chemical shocks to fertilized eggs, which prevents the second polar body from being extruded during meiosis, resulting in an extra set of chromosomes. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish ❑ Triploidy method (Advantages) ✔ Sterility: Triploid fish are usually sterile, which is beneficial for controlling populations in aquaculture and preventing the escape of genetically modified or non-native species into the wild. ✔ Growth Rate: In some cases, triploid fish can exhibit faster growth rates and improved feed conversion efficiency since energy is not diverted towards gonadal development. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Methods of culture relative to sex of fish ❑ Triploidy method (Advantages) ✔ Meat Quality: Sterility often results in better meat quality, particularly in species where sexual maturation leads to reduced flesh quality. ✔ Environmental Control: Triploid fish can be used to control invasive species populations or manage fisheries without the risk of them breeding and affecting the ecosystem. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Other methods under finfishes Traditional straight-run method: This is a method of culture where fish, especially the milkfish fingerlings, are reared in the grow-out pond or rearing pond (not nursery nor transition ponds) from the stocking time up to the harvest time without having them moved to another rearing pond compartment for feeding and growing purposes. Often, 3 – 4 croppings in one year have been made in the grow-out ponds with the straight-run method of culture. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Other methods under finfishes Modular method: This is a method of culture where fish (mostly milkfish) pass three series of progressing sizes of grow-out pond compartments to grow from juvenile or post juvenile stage to marketable or large size. In other words, the fish are stocked in smallest grow-out pond compartment (GOPC), then they are transferred to the next GOPC with bigger size after 15-30 days in the 1st GOPC. After 15-30 days of rearing in the 2nd GOPC, the fish are finally transferred to the largest GOPC for another 15-30 days of rearing period. The three GOPCs in the modular system may be named, PPS1, PPS2 and PPS3, where PPS spells out production process stage. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Other methods under finfishes Like for instance, if the entire area of the grow-out or rearing pond constitutes 7 hectares, then 1 part is equal to 1 hectare, 2 parts – 2 hectares, and 4 parts – 4 hectares. The culture operation in the modular system is continuous enabling one fish farmer to have 6-8 croppings per year 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Culture Methods For Mollusks and Other Invertebrates Hanging method: using rubber strip, plastic rope w/ threaded empty shells, galvanized iron wire w/ threaded empty shells. 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Culture Methods For Mollusks and Other Invertebrates Ring method (using rubber strip): uses rubber strips from old tires. These are tied on the horizontal bamboo poles and serve as the spat collectors. Note: ✔ Code of Good Aquaculture Practices for Oyster and Mussel 2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS Culture Systems and Methods in Aquaculture Culture Methods For Mollusks and Other Invertebrates Stake “tulus” method: bamboo trunks (split or whole) known as stakes for oyster spats collection are clipped with empty oyster shells or tin cans at 10-15 cm intervals to increase the space attachment of oyster spats. These are staked on shallow areas (not