Introduction To Anatomy For Premed PDF

Addis Ababa University College of Health Science School of Medicine Module Name: Body Structure, Organization and Function Module Number: I Module Code: BSOF 1011 Credit valu...

Addis Ababa University College of Health Science School of Medicine Module Name: Body Structure, Organization and Function Module Number: I Module Code: BSOF 1011 Credit value (ECTS): 6 Introduction to Anatomy for medical study hard 3/16/2019 students By: Fikre Bayu (MSc) 1  Introduction Anatomy- from Greek “to cut out” Study of the structure of the human body, either regionally or systemically Physiology- a branch of biological science dealing with the function of body parts 3/16/2019 study hard 2  History of Anatomy  Probably began with early examinations of sacrifice victims  First formally documented by Egyptians approximately 500 BC  Egyptian anatomical papyrus showed organs including blood vessels 3/16/2019 study hard 3  Hippocrates (460-377 BC)  Greek physician who studied anatomy and speculated physiology  Father of medicine  Much of his work remains today  His oath taken by doctors at graduation  Aristotle (384-322 BC)  First person to use the term “Anatome” 3/16/2019 study hard 4  Galen (130 BC)  Compiled anatomical studies of earlier writers  Used dissection of human and animal bodies  During renaissance artists & anatomists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michel Angelo, and Vesalius (1514-1564) began to accurately display, portray and describe the parts of the human body & thus to revise, amend & correct many Galenic concepts 3/16/2019 study hard 5  15-16th century contributions  This was also assisted by the work of other contemporary Italian Anatomists like Eustachius & Fallopius & later (1578- 1657) by the English functional morphologist William Harvey discover the circulation of blood 3/16/2019 study hard 6  17th and 18th centuries Few dissection were allowed by certain scientists Tickets were sold to others wishing to see and draw the dissected bodies 3/16/2019 study hard 7  19th century Began studying developmental anatomy England become the center of anatomical research Anatomy act of 1832 provide adequate supply of corpses Grays anatomy first published 1858 for travelling doctors 3/16/2019 study hard 8  Modern anatomy Use of new technology provided further understanding of both structure and function of body parts X-ray, CT, ultrasound, MRI, genetic tests 3/16/2019 study hard 9  Future of anatomy Health related studies are now centered around the molecular biology Looking for genetic and molecular indicators of disease New assays are conducted in vitro vs. in vivo 3/16/2019 study hard 10  Division of Anatomy  Gross Anatomy  study of body structures visible to naked eye  Microscopic Anatomy  The study of human structure via microscope  Ultrastructural anatomy:-ultramicroscopic study of structures too small to be seen with a light microscope  Developmental Anatomy  study of changes in an individual from conception to old age  Comparative Anatomy  The study of human structures in comparison with other organism 3/16/2019 study hard 11  Cont...  Surgical anatomy:- is the study of anatomy in connection with surgical operations & surgical procedures (e.g. anatomy of surgical incisions, anatomy of surgical exposures  Radiological anatomy:- is the study of anatomy using radiological techniques e.g. X-rays, CT scan, ultrasound & MRI to demonstrate the bones or some internal organs as the heart, lungs, kidneys, stomach & intestine  Pathological anatomy  structural changes (from gross to microscopic) associated with disease 3/16/2019 study hard 12  Approaches of study  Three main approaches; regional, systemic and clinical/applied. 1. Regional anatomy- deals all structures in one part of the body( head, neck, thorax, abdomen, lower limb, etc.).  It examines the arrangement and relationships of various systemic structures(muscle, artery, nerve, etc. within it.  It recognizes the bodies structure by layers(skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle with fascia, skeleton, cavity, internal organs). 3/16/2019 study hard 13 3/16/2019 study hard 14  Cont...  Surface anatomy- study of internal structures in the living human being as they relate to the overlaying skin  is an essential part of the study of regional anatomy  through visualization and palpation surface markings of the body to understand the relations of deep structures  Physical examination is the clinical application of surface anatomy 3/16/2019 study hard 15 2. Systemic anatomy- studies the body based on organ systems that work together  The 11 human systems Integumentary Skeletal Muscular Nervous Endocrine Circulatory (Cardiovascular and Lymphatic) Respiratory Digestive Urinary Reproductive 3/16/2019 Immune study hard 16  Integumentary system Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails Forms the external body covering Protects deep tissues from injury Regulates body temperature Site of cutaneous receptors Synthesizes vitamin D Prevents water loss 3/16/2019 study hard 17  Skeletal system Composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments and joints Provides the framework for the body Protects and supports body organs Site of blood cell formation Stores minerals Allows for body movement 3/16/2019 study hard 18 Muscular system Composed of muscles and tendons Produces body movement Generates heat Maintains posture 3/16/2019 study hard 19 Nervous system Composed of brain and spinal cord (CNS) and nerves arising from them (PNS) Control and coordination 3/16/2019 study hard 20  Endocrine system Composed of endocrine glands and endocrine cells that secrete hormones Coordination and regulation 3/16/2019 study hard 21  Cardiovascular system Composed of the heart and blood vessels and blood The heart pumps blood The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body in order to distribute hormones, nutrients, gases, and pick up waste products 3/16/2019 study hard 22 Lymphatic system Composed of thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood Houses white blood cells which are involved with immunity 3/16/2019 study hard 23 Respiratory system Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs Responsible for exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between blood and the air in the lungs 3/16/2019 study hard 24  Digestive system Composed of Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and accessory organs – GIT: oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine – Accessory organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder & pancreas Mechanically and chemically digests food materials Absorbs nutrients Expels waste products 3/16/2019 study hard 25  Urinary system Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra Filters the blood and removes waste products from the blood Concentrates waste products in the form of urine, and expels urine from the body Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the blood 3/16/2019 study hard 26 Male Reproductive system Composed of glands, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens Produces male sex cells (sperm) and male hormones (e.g., testosterone) Transfers sperm to the female 3/16/2019 study hard 27 Female Reproductive system  Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina and vulva Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and female hormones (e.g., estrogen and progesterone) Receives sperm from male Site of fertilization Site of growth and development of embryo and fetus 3/16/2019 study hard 28 3. Applied anatomy  Is Clinical anatomy  stresses on clinical application E.g., instead of thinking, “The action of this muscle is to... ,” clinical anatomy asks, “How would the absence of this muscle’s activity be manifest?”  Incorporates the regional and systemic approaches to studying anatomy 3/16/2019 study hard 29  Levels of structural organization Organism level Collection of organ systems which function together E.g human being 3/16/2019 study hard 30  Cont… Organ system level Organs which work together to perform a certain function E.g cardiovascular system 3/16/2019 study hard 31  Cont… Organ level Collection of tissues that work together to form an organ system E.g heart, artery, vein, capillary 3/16/2019 study hard 32  Cont… Tissue level Cells which work together to form an organ E.g connective tissue, muscular tissue 3/16/2019 study hard 33  Cont…  Cellular level Cells that work together to form tissue E.g RBC, WBC, neuron, muscle cells 3/16/2019 study hard 34  Cont…  Organelle level Work collectively to form a cell E.g mitochondria, GA, nucleus 3/16/2019 study hard 35  Cont…  Molecular level Work collectively to form an organelles E.g protein, CHO, lipid 3/16/2019 study hard 36  Cont…  Atomic level Most basic anything can be broken into and still exhibit the characteristics of itself E.g CHON 3/16/2019 study hard 37  Anatomical position is the standard reference position of the body used to describe the location & relations of various anatomical structures All descriptions in human anatomy are expressed in relation to the anatomical position By using this any part of the body can be related to any other part 3/16/2019 study hard 38  Cont...  In Anatomical position, the Body:  Regarded erect  Eyes looking forward to the horizon  Upper limbs by the sides  Palms directed forward  Lower limbs together with feet directed anteriorly  The toes directed anteriorly 3/16/2019 study hard 39  Body planes and Sections  Planes of the Body/Anatomical Planes Three planes of the body are: 1. Vertical plane (Sagittal and Frontal/Coronal planes) 2. Horizontal (transverse) plane 3. Oblique plane 3/16/2019 study hard 40  Cont... 3/16/2019 study hard 41  Cont... Slices of the body along these planes Sections correspondingly named as:  Sagittal section  Median section  Frontal or coronal section  Horizontal, transverse or cross section  Oblique section 3/16/2019 study hard 42  Cont... 3/16/2019 study hard 43  Cont... 3/16/2019 study hard 44  Anatomicomedical Terms Anatomical terms are mainly relative types Most of these terms are derived from either Latin or Greek Greek origin e.g arthros=joint, myo=muscle, neuro=nerve, brachium=arm etc Latin origin e.g caput=head, caudal=tail etc Terms are divided into:- term of position and term of movements 3/16/2019 study hard 45 Important Anatomicomedical Terms 3/16/2019 study hard 46 3/16/2019 study hard 47 3/16/2019 study hard 48  Terms of position/relationship 3/16/2019 study hard 49  Cont... 3/16/2019 study hard 50  Terms of Movement increasing angle with frontal plane Flexion Extension & decreasing angle with frontal plane moving away from or toward the Abduction Adduction sagittal plane moving forward or backward along Protraction Retraction a surface Elevation Depression raising or lowering a structure movement around an axis of a Medial rotation Lateral rotation bone placing palm backward or forward Pronation Supination (in anatomical position) combined movements of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction Circumduction medial and lateral rotation circumscribe a cone bringing tips of fingers and thumb Opposition Reposition together as in picking something up 3/16/2019 study hard 51 3/16/2019 study hard 52 3/16/2019 study hard 53 3/16/2019 study hard 54 3/16/2019 study hard 55 3/16/2019 study hard 56  Lithotomy position 3/16/2019 study hard 57 Three types: angular, circular & special movements 1. Angular movements Flexion & extension  Flexion: bends the joint interiorly, so as to approximate anterior surfaces to each other  Dorsiflexion: flexion at the ankle joint, as occurs when walking uphill or lifting the toes off the ground.  Plantarflexion: turns the foot or toes toward the plantar surface  Extension: is the reverse of flexion, i.e. it moves anterior surfaces away from each other  Hyperextension: extension of a limb or part beyond the normal limit (overextension) 3/16/2019 study hard 58  Cont... Adduction & abduction  Adduction: is the movement of the limb medially towards the median plane  Abduction: is the reverse of adduction, i.e. it moves the limb laterally away from the median plane.  Right & left lateral flexion (lateral bending) are special forms of abduction for only the neck & trunk 3/16/2019 study hard 59 2. Circular movements Rotation  Medial rotation: Movement of ventral surface toward the midline.  Lateral rotation: movement of a ventral surface away from the midline.  Circumduction  Circumduction: is a circular movement that is a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, & adduction occurring in such a way that the distal end of the part moves in a circle. 3/16/2019 study hard 60 Pronation & supination  These are rotatory movements which occur only in the forearm where the radius rotates around the ulna  pronation: The palm of the hand turns backwards or downwards (the radius crosses in front of the ulna)  supination: – The palm faces forwards of upwards (the radius lies parallel with the ulna) 3/16/2019 study hard 61  3. Special movements Opposition & reposition  Opposition: approximation of the thumb to the other fingers.  Reposition: the movement of the 1st digit from the position of opposition back to its anatomical position. Inversion & eversion  occur in the foot at the subtalar (talocalcaneonavicular) joint  Eversion: moves the sole of the foot away from the median plane (turning the sole laterally).  Inversion: moves the sole of the foot toward the median plane (facing the sole medially). 3/16/2019 study hard 62  Protrusion & retrusion  Protrusion (protraction) is a movement anteriorly as in protruding the mandible (chin), lips, or tongue.  Retrusion (retraction) is a movement posteriorly, as in retruding the mandible, lips, or tongue. – Protraction & retraction are terms used most commonly for anterior & posterior movements of the shoulder.  Elevation & depression  Elevation raises or moves a part superiorly, as in elevating the shoulders, the upper lid, or the tongue.  Depression lowers or moves a part inferiorly, as in depressing the shoulders, the upper lid, or mandible. 3/16/2019 study hard 63  Anatomical Variation  Human diversity is expressed in anatomical Variations  Books describe the most common patterns. However, occasionally a particular structure demonstrates so much variation within the normal range Physical, sexual, racial, genetic, etc.  A wide variation is found in the size, shape & form of attachments of muscles, bones & patterns of branching of veins, arteries & nerves.  Individual variation must be considered in physical examination, diagnosis & treatment. 3/16/2019 study hard 64 Body Cavities and their membranes Body Cavities The cavities, or spaces, of the body contain the internal organs, or viscera The two main cavities are called the ventral and dorsal cavities The ventral cavity The larger cavity and is subdivided into two parts (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities) by the diaphragm, a dome-shaped respiratory muscle 3/16/2019 study hard 65 3/16/2019 study hard 66 3/16/2019 study hard 67  Cont.… Smaller cavities within the head include the oral cavity, nasal cavity, orbital cavities, and middle ear cavities. 3/16/2019 study hard 68  Body membranes Body membranes are thin sheets of tissue that cover the body, line body cavities, and cover organs within the cavities in hollow organs. They can be categorized into epithelial and connective tissue membrane. 1. Epithelial Membranes consist of epithelial tissue and the connective tissue to which it is attached. The two main types of epithelial membranes are the mucous membranes and serous membranes 3/16/2019 study hard 69  Cont... Mucous Membranes are epithelial membranes that consist of epithelial tissue that is attached to an underlying loose connective tissue These membranes, sometimes called mucosae, line the body cavities that open to the outside The entire digestive tract is lined with mucous membranes. Other examples include the respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts 3/16/2019 study hard 70 3/16/2019 study hard 71 3/16/2019 study hard 72  Cont... 2. Connective Tissue Membranes contain only connective tissue. Synovial membranes and meninges belong to this category Meninges: the connective tissue covering on the brain and spinal cord, within the dorsal cavity.  They provide protection for these vital structures 3/16/2019 study hard 73  Cont... Synovial Membranes are connective tissue membranes that line the cavities of the freely movable joints such as the shoulder, elbow, and knee Like serous membranes, they line cavities that do not open to the outside Unlike serous membranes, they do not have a layer of epithelium Synovial membranes secrete synovial fluid into the joint cavity, and this lubricates the cartilage on the ends of the bones so that they can move freely and without friction 3/16/2019 study hard 74 3/16/2019 study hard 75  THE HUMAN BODY IS COMPOSED OF 11 SYSTEMS Integumentary system Respiratory system Skeletal system Digestive system Muscular system Urinary system Nervous system Reproductive system Endocrine system Immune system Circulatory system 3/16/2019 study hard 76 General Description of Body Layers  Diagram of a cross section through the upper limb to show the layers: Before removing the skin and superficial fascia from a region, study the bony structures in the area  The cadaver dissector (or the surgeon) should be aware of the layers that they will encounter  The superficial fascia varies as to thickness:  4 to 5 inches thick in overweight persons.  superficial (cutaneous) vessels and nerves travel thru the superficial fascia 3/16/2019 study hard 77  FASCIAE AND BURSAE  Deep fascia is an organized connective tissue layer that completely envelops the body beneath the subcutaneous tissue underlying the skin  Extensions and modifications of the deep fascia  divide muscles into groups (intermuscular septa),  invest individual muscles and neurovascular bundles (investing fascia),  lie between musculoskeletal walls and the serous membranes lining body cavities (subserous fascia),  and hold tendons in place during joint movements (retinacula)  Bursae are closed sacs formed of serous membrane that occur in locations subject to friction; they enable one structure to move freely over another 3/16/2019 study hard 78  The Skeletal System  Parts of the skeletal system Bones (skeleton) Joints Cartilages Ligaments (bone to bone)(tendon=bone to muscle) 3/16/2019 study hard 79  Functions of Bones  Support of the body (framework)  Protection of soft organs  Serve as levers (with help from muscles)  Storage of minerals and fats (calcium)  Blood cell formation 3/16/2019 study hard 80  Cont...  Skeleton comes from a Greek word meaning dried up body part  Skeleton accounts for 20 % of our body weight  Bone appears dead and dried up, but it is not!  Bone is living tissue  Newborn human has more than 300 bones  Adult human has 206 bones 3/16/2019 study hard 81  Classification of bones  I. According to location:  Axial (80) ~ bones of the cranium, face, vertebral column, and bony thorax  Appendicular skeleton (126) ~ includes the bones of the pelvic girdles, the upper extremities and lower extremities 3/16/2019 study hard 82 3/16/2019 study hard 83 The Axial Skeleton  Forms the longitudinal part of the body  Divided into three parts  Skull  Vertebral column  Bony thorax 3/16/2019 study hard 84  The Axial Skeleton 3/16/2019 study hard 85  The Skull (28 bones)  Sits on top of the vertebral column  Two sets of bones  Cranium (8 bones)  Facial bones (14 bones)  Bones are joined by sutures  Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint  Ossicles (6 bones) 3/16/2019 study hard 86 3/16/2019 study hard 87 Hyoid bone  U shaped  Found in the upper neck  The only bone that does not articulate with another bone  Serves as a moveable base for the tongue 3/16/2019 study hard 88  Middle Ear  3 Tiny bones ~ transmit vibrations  All derived from Latin words  Malleus (hammer)  Incus (anvil)  Stapes (stirrup)  Smallest bone in the body 3/16/2019 study hard 89  The Vertebral Column The backbone or spine Consists of 26 bones called vertebrae  Cervical C7  Thoracic T12  Lumbar L5  Sacral S1  Coccyx C1 3/16/2019 study hard 90 The Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage)  The chest region  Forms a cage to protect major organs  Composed of sternum, ribs and thoracic vertebrae 3/16/2019 study hard 91  Thoracic Cage Sternum ~ breastbone  Dagger-shaped bone located along the midline of the anterior chest 3/16/2019 study hard 92  Thoracic Cage Ribs ~ 12 pairs of ribs attach posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae and anteriorly to sternum True ribs- first 7 pairs False ribs- 8-10th pairs Floating ribs- 11th and 12th ribs 3/16/2019 study hard 93  The Appendicular Skeleton  Limbs (appendages)  Pectoral (shoulder) girdle  Pelvic girdle 3/16/2019 study hard 94  Microscopic Anatomy of Bone  Osteon (Haversian System) – A unit of bone  Central (Haversian) canal – Carries blood vessels and nerves  Perforating (Volkman’s) canal – Canal perpendicular to the central canal – Carries blood vessels and nerves 3/16/2019 study hard 95 II. According to structural appearance  Gross observation of bone in cross section shows two regions based on size and distribution of spaces – Compact – Spongy  Compact bone tissue Dense areas generally without cavities Forms external layer of all bones and diaphysis 3/16/2019 study hard 96  Spongy (Cancellous) bone tissue  Areas with numerous interconnecting cavities  Composed of network of thin plates of bone called trabeculae, separated by spaces containing bone marrow  Found at the bone's interior  Makes up most of short, flat and irregular bone and epiphysis of long bone 3/16/2019 study hard 97  III. According bone development  Ossification begins about the 8th week in embryo  Development of bone occurs in 2 ways  Both involve replacement of primitive connective tissue by bone resulting woven (immature) bone which remodeled into mature bone – Most bones are preceded by cartilage model which is replaced by bone = Endochondral ossification – Some bones are formed by deposition of bone within loose fibrous primitive mesenchymal tissue membranes = intramembranous ossification  forms flat bones 3/16/2019 study hard 98  Endochondral ossification 3/16/2019 study hard 99  Intamembraneous ossification 3/16/2019 study hard 100  Cont.… 3/16/2019 study hard 101  IV. According to their Shape 3/16/2019 study hard Figure102 5.1  Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone  Diaphysis – Shaft – Composed of compact bone  Epiphysis – Ends of the bone – Composed mostly of spongy bone – Epiphyseal line/disc/plate 3/16/2019 study hard Figure103 5.2a  Structures of a Long Bone Periosteum – Outside covering of the diaphysis – Fibrous connective tissue membrane Sharpey’s fibers – Secure periosteum to underlying bone Endosteum – The inner lining of bone marrow cavity 3/16/2019 study hard 104  Structures of a Long Bone  Medullary cavity – Cavity of the shaft – Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults – Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants 3/16/2019 study hard Figure105 5.2a  Structures of a Long Bone  Articular cartilage – Covers the external surface of the epiphyses – Made of hyaline cartilage – Decreases friction at joint surfaces 3/16/2019 study hard 106  Bone Markings Surface features of bones – Projections and processes – grow out from the bone surface – Depressions or cavities – indentations Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments Passages for nerves and blood vessels 3/16/2019 study hard 107 3/16/2019 study hard 108 3/16/2019 study hard 109 3/16/2019 study hard 110  Bone Deformation  Rickets can result from insufficient vitamin D in the diet or from insufficient amounts of ultraviolet radiation from the sun  It can lead to skeletal deformation, such as vertebral or leg curvature 3/16/2019 study hard 111 Bone Fractures  A break in a bone  Types of bone fractures  Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate the skin  Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates through the skin  Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization  Realignment of the bone 3/16/2019 study hard 112 Common Types of Fractures 3/16/2019 study hard 113  Cont...  Capillary:- hair like crack within the bone  Transverse:- the fracture occurs across the bone at right angles to the shaft  Oblique:- fracture occurs across the bone at an oblique angle to the long axis of the bone  Colle’s:- fracture of distal portion of radius  Pott’s:- fracture of either or both of distal ends of tibia & fibula at malleoli level  Avulsion:- portion of a bone is torn off 3/16/2019 study hard 114 3/16/2019 study hard 115 3/16/2019 study hard 116  Treatments of fractures 3/16/2019 study hard 117 Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture 3/16/2019 study hard 118  Repair of Bone Fractures  Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed  Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a soft callus  Blood vessels grow into the hematoma  Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus  Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch 3/16/2019 study hard 119  Joints/Articulations  Joints are sites where two or more bones meet  Functions  provide skeletal mobility  hold the skeleton together  Weakest parts of the skeleton but have ability to resist the forces that tear them apart  Ways joints are classified  By their function  By their structure 3/16/2019 study hard 120 Functional Classification of Joints  Synarthroses – immovable joints  Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints  Diarthroses – freely moveable joints 3/16/2019 study hard 121 Structural Classification of Joints  Fibrous joints  Generally immovable  Cartilaginous joints  Immovable or slightly moveable  Synovial joints  Freely moveable 3/16/2019 study hard 122  Bones are joined by fibrous tissue  Types  Sutures Dense fibrous connective tissue  Syndesmoses  A cord or band of connective tissue  Gomphoses  Peg-in-socket arrangement surrounded by fibrous tissue or peridontal ligament 3/16/2019 study hard 123  Occurs only between bones of the skull  Wavy articulating bone edges interlock  Junction is filled by connective tissue 3/16/2019 study hard 124  bones are united by sheet of fibrous tissue  permits the joint to flex  True movement is not possible 3/16/2019 study hard 125  unique joint b/n a tooth & its socket  Fibrous tissue holds teeth in their sockets 3/16/2019 study hard 126  The articulating bones are united by cartilage  Types  Synchondroses Hyaline cartilage unites the bones  Symphyses  Fibrocartilage unites the bones 3/16/2019 study hard 127  Hyaline cartilage unites the bones  E.g.. Epiphyseal plates in growing children  Provide for bone growth  When growth ends all synchondroses become immovable 3/16/2019 study hard 128  Bone surfaces are covered with articular hyaline cartilage which is fused to a pad of fibrocartilage  Fibrocartilage is resilient and acts as a shock absorber and permits limited movement Pubic Symphysis 3/16/2019 study hard 129 Cartilaginous Joints – mostly amphiarthrosis 3/16/2019 study hard 130  Synovial Joints  Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity  Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity  Reinforced by ligaments  Permit substantial range of motion 3/16/2019 study hard 131  Structures of Synovial Joint  Articular cartilage  Hyaline cartilage on opposing bone surfaces  Joint (synovial) cavity  Space filled with fluid  Articular capsule  Capsule to confine fluid  Synovial fluid  Fluid to lubricate joints  Reinforcing ligaments  Maintain joint alignment 3/16/2019 study hard 132 3/16/2019 study hard 133  Bursae and tendon sheaths are closely associated with synovial joints  Essentially sacs of lubricant  Function: reduce friction between adjacent structures 3/16/2019 study hard 134 Nonaxial: no rotation around an axis Uniaxial: motion is within a single plane Biaxial: allow movement in two planes Multiaxial: movement is possible in all planes 3/16/2019 study hard 135 Based on the shape of their articular surfaces there are six major categories of synovial joints  Plane (sliding)  Hinge  Pivot  Condyloid  Saddle  ball and socket 3/16/2019 study hard 136  Types of Synovial Joints 1. Gliding/Plane Joint – Articular surfaces are essentially flat – Allow only short slipping or gliding movements – Nonaxial joint  Examples Intercarpals Intertarsals Vertebrae 3/16/2019 study hard 137 Types of Synovial Joints 2. Hinge joint – a cylindrical shaped projection of bone fits into a trough shaped surface of another bone – Motion is within a single plane (uniaxial) – Joint components resemble that of a mechanical hinge  Examples – Elbow, knee, finger joints 3/16/2019 study hard 138 Types of Synovial Joints 3. Pivot Joint – The rounded end of a bone protrudes into a ring of bone and ligaments on another bone – Only movement allowed is rotation of bone around long axis  Examples the joint between the atlas and axis proximal radioulnar joint 3/16/2019 study hard 139  Types of Synovial Joints 4. Condyloid Joint – The oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary concavity in another – Both articulating surfaces are oval shaped – biaxial joints  Examples Metacarpophalangea l joints 3/16/2019 study hard 140 Types of Synovial Joints 5. Saddle Joint  Each surface has both a concave and a convex surface that fit together  Biaxial movement  Examples  Carpometacarpal  Sternoclavicular joints 3/16/2019 study hard 141  Types of Synovial Joints 6. Ball and Socket Joint – The spherical head of one bone articulates with the cuplike socket of another – Multiaxial – The most freely moving synovial joint – Movements in all planes is allowed  Examples Shoulder joint Hip joint 3/16/2019 study hard 142  Summary of joints  Fibrous joints – Suture – Syndesmoses – Gomphoses  Cartilaginous joints – Synchondroses – Symphyses  Synovial joints – gliding – hinge – Pivot – Condyloid – Saddle 3/16/2019 – ball and socket study hard 143  Muscular system Comprises all muscles of the body Muscle comprises the largest group of tissues in the body Approximately constitutes half of the body’s weight Skeletal muscle about 40% of body weight in men & 32% in women 3/16/2019 study hard 144  Basic functions of muscles body Movement  Maintenance of posture  Heat production (maintain Temp)  Storing and moving substances within the body.  Control the openings (sphincters) 3/16/2019 study hard 145 Functional Characteristics of Muscle Tissue  Excitability or irritability Ability to respond to a stimulus  Contractility Ability to shorten forcibly  Extensibility Muscle fibers can be stretched  Elasticity Resume its normal length (shape) after being shortened 3/16/2019 study hard 146  Fascia Associated with Muscles Constitute wrapping, packing & insulating materials of the deep structures of the body  Dense, organized CT layer, devoid of fat Forms intermuscular septa & it also blends firmly with the periosteum (bone covering) Deep fascia, contracting muscles, and venous valves work together as a musculovenous pump to return blood to the heart, especially in the lower limbs 3/16/2019 study hard 147  Cont... 3/16/2019 study hard 148  Retinacula  thin strong band of CT, formed by thickening of the deep fascia, that prevents the springing of tendons especially in the wrist & ankle region 3/16/2019 study hard 149  Cont...  The outermost layer, encircling the entire muscle, is the Epimysium  Perimysium (surrounds groups of 10 to 100 or more muscle fibers, separating them into bundles called fascicles (little bundles)  Surrounds the separating individual muscle fibers from one another is endomysium (within), a thin sheath of areolar connective tissue 3/16/2019 study hard 150  TYPES OF MUSCLES TISSUE Classified into three categories according to  morphology and  cross striations  location  functions 1. Skeletal 2. Cardiac 3. Smooth 3/16/2019 study hard 151  1. Skeletal Muscle  there are two attachment site  Origin- the stationary end of the muscle attachment  Insertion- the relatively moveable end of the skeletal muscle attachment  Belly(gaster)- the thick & flesh region between two attachments (origin & insertion) origin belly insertion 3/16/2019 study hard 152  Muscle attachment Muscle attachments may be direct or indirect. Direct – the Epimysium part directly attached to the bone or other soft tissues without a tendon Skeletal muscle doesn’t attach directly to the bone Indirect either a cordlike structure= tendon or A broad sheet like structure= aponeurosis 3/16/2019 study hard 153 Indirect attachments Tendon Aponeurosis 3/16/2019 study hard 154  Coordinated action of muscle groups  Muscles that perform opposite actions are antagonistic muscles e.g, Biceps brachii & triceps brachii  Synergistic Muscles- are muscles that perform similar actions  Agonist ( prime mover) – muscles which perform great action or a muscle that causes a desired action is referred to as the prime mover or agonist ( leader).  When you bend(flex) your elbow, the biceps brachii is prime mover while the triceps brachii is antagonist 3/16/2019 study hard 155  Muscles in the body rarely work alone, & are usually arranged in groups surrounding a joint  A muscle that contracts to create the desired action is known as an agonist or prime mover biceps triceps  A muscle that helps the agonist is a synergist  A muscle that opposes the action of the agonist, therefore undoing the desired action is an antagonist 3/16/2019 study hard 156  Naming of skeletal muscles  on the basis of shape, location, attachment orientation of fibers, relative position, or function.. 1. Shape:  Rhomboideus= diamond  Trapezius= trapezoid  Quadratus =Square  Orbicularis= Circular 2. based on number of heads of origin:  Triceps it has three heads  biceps it has two heads 3. Location:  Pectoralis= chest  Intercostal= between the ribs  brachium = arm  Temporalis=temporal bone and Frontalis= frontal bone 3/16/2019 study hard 157 4. Attachment: Zygomaticus= attachment on zygomatic bone Temporialis= temporal bone Nasalis= nasal bone Femoris= attaches on femur  tibialis= attachment on tibia Sternocleidomastoid= origin from sternum and clavicle ; inserted on mastoid process of temporal bone 5. Size:  Maximus=largest  medius  Minimus=smallest  Longus=longest  Brevis=shorter 3/16/2019 study hard 158 6.Orientation of fibers:  Rectus =straight parallel to the mid line  Transversus =horizontal perpendicular to the mid line  Obliquus =diagonal muscle fascicles  Orbicularis =circular muscle fibers 7. Relative position: 8. Action lateral, - adductor  medial, - flexor  internal, and - pronator external. - extensor 3/16/2019 study hard 159 Size: Relative size of the muscle Maximus =Largest -Gluteus maximus Minimus =Smallest -Gluteus Minimus Longus =Longest -Adductor longus Latissimus =Widest -Latissimus dorsi Longissimus = Longest -Longissimus muscles Magnus = Large -Adductor magnus Major =Larger -Pectoralis major Minor = Smaller- Pectoralis minor Vastus = Great -Vastus lateralis 3/16/2019 study hard 160 Arrangement of Fascicles  parallel  Fascicles parallel to longitudinal axis of muscle; terminate at either end in flat e.g. Stylohyoid muscle  circular  Fascicles in concentric circular arrangements form sphincter muscles that enclose an orifice (opening). e.g. Orbicularis oculi & oris muscles 3/16/2019 study hard 161  Pennate - Short fascicles in relation to total muscle length; tendon extends nearly entire length of muscle.  unipennate  Fascicles are arranged on only one side of the tendon e.g. Extensor digitorum longus muscle (EDL)  bipennate  Fascicles are arranged on both sides of centrally positioned tendons  E.g, Rectus femoris muscle  multipennate  Fascicles attach obliquely from many directions to several tendons. E.g. Deltoid muscle 3/16/2019 study hard 162 3/16/2019 study hard 163  fusiform  Fascicles nearly parallel to longitudinal axis of muscle; terminate in flat muscle tapers toward tendons, where diameter is less than at belly. e.g. Digastric muscle  triangular  Fascicles spread over broad area converge at thick central tendon; gives muscle a triangular appearance. e.g. Pectoralis major muscle 3/16/2019 study hard 164 3/16/2019 study hard 165 Intrinsic& extrinsic muscles  Intrinsic muscles -has both insertion and origin within the same region e.g. Intrinsic muscle of toungh which alter the shape of the tongue rather moving the entire tongue  Extrinsic muscles -muscles which has origin from other body regions e.g. extrinsic tongue muscles – Genioglossus – Styloglossus – Palatoglossus – hypoglossus 3/16/2019 study hard 166 2. Cardiac muscle tissue It is only found in the heart wall Striated, involuntary muscle branching Uni- or binucleate 3/16/2019 study hard 167  CARDIAC MUSCLE 3/16/2019 study hard 168  3. Smooth muscle tissue Cells Single cells, uninucleated, spindle(Fusiform) shaped No striations(non -striated) Smooth Muscle-Involuntary It has layers-opposite orientation (peristalsis) Lines of hollow organs found in walls of internal organs (intestines, bladder, stomach, uterus, blood vessels) 3/16/2019 study hard 169 3/16/2019 study hard 170  Cont...  Involuntary, non-striated muscle tissue  Occurs with in almost every organ, forming sheets, bundles, or sheaths around other tissues. Cardiovascular system: Smooth muscle in blood vessels regulates blood flow through vital organs. Smooth muscle also helps regulate blood pressure Digestive systems: Rings of smooth muscle, called sphincters, regulate movement along internal passageways. Smooth muscle lining the passageways alternates contraction and relaxation to propel matter through the alimentary canal. 3/16/2019 study hard 171  Cont... Integumentary system: Regulates blood flow to the superficial dermis Allows for piloerection - raising up of hairs Respiratory system Alters the diameter of the airways and changes the resistance to airflow Urinary system Sphincters regulate the passage of urine Internal (involuntary) & external sphincter(voluntary) External sphincter is type of skeletal muscle Smooth muscle contractions move urine into and out of the urinary bladder 3/16/2019 study hard 172  Cont... Reproductive system  Males Allows for movement of sperm along the male reproductive tract. Allows for secretion of the non-cellular components of semen Allows for erection and ejaculation  Females Assists in the movement of the egg (sperm) through the female reproductive tract Plays a large role in childbirth 3/16/2019 study hard 173 Type Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle Location Skeleton bone Heart visceral organs associated Sheath epi-, peri-, and Endomysium & peri Endomysium endomysium Cell shape long cylinders Short branching small spindles anastomising cells Tapered at the end Number of nuclei and many per cell usually one per cell, one per cell location of nuclei peripheral central central Cross-striations present present absent Intercalated discs absent present absent Function voluntary involuntary involuntary Growth and limited limited unlimited from 3/16/2019 study hard 174 regeneration response other 3/16/2019 study hard 175