Unit 1: The Scientific Method and the Logic of Research in International Relations (Notes)

UNIT 1. The scientific method and the logic of research in international Relations ================================================================================== The differentiation between social science research and mere opinion ----------------------------------------------------------------...

UNIT 1. The scientific method and the logic of research in international Relations ================================================================================== The differentiation between social science research and mere opinion -------------------------------------------------------------------- Mainstream worldview Contrarian worldview ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Contrarian is hijacked by powerful commercial interest Mainstream is hijacked by powerful commercial interest Represents the scientific consensus Mainstream is a slice of science. Is it valid and trustworthy Contrarian science is valid and trustworthy. Personal experiences have lower epistemic value than scientific constructs. Mainstream numbers are manipulated and seriously flawed; alternative numbers may be available. Trust manifest or experimentally visible (democratization of science) Ideological affinity with individualist (neoliberal) FACT OPINION -------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- MEANING Fact refers to something that can be verified or proved to be true. Opinion refers to a judgment or belief about something. BASED ON Observation or research. Assumption or personal view. WHAT IS IT Objective reality Subjective statement VERIFICATION Possible Not possible REPRESENTS Something happened A perception about something CHANGES Universal Differs from person to person WORLD Shown with unbiased words Expressed with biased words DEBATABLE No Yes INFLUENCE Facts have the power to influence others Opinion does not have the power to influence others 1. Science and scientific method -------------------------------- Science has 4 aims - Analyze: to know how reality is, which elements define it, and which are its characteristics. - Explain: to know how its different parts are related, and why reality is the way it is. - Predict: to predict events that may/will happen. - Act: the capacity to act to transform or influence reality. Scientific method is something that has developed in the last 2000 years. - Francis Bacon: insistence on construction of science through facts and experimentation - Renée Descartes: he established elemental principles of methodic doubt - Galileo Galilei: he was killed by saying that the world rotates and that's round. Creationism: theory that claims that doesn't believe in Darwin's Theory, but rather that we come from Adan and Eve. How do we define social research: it's the kind of research that involves social scientific methods, theories, and concepts, to enhance our understanding of the social processes and problems encountered by individuals and groups in society. It is pursued by the application of the scientific method. Social research involves the scientific method. - Applies systematic collection of methods to produce knowledge. - It is objective. - It can tell and reach unexpected conclusions. - It is theory and observation. - Sometimes it may be called 'soft sciences' because their subject matter (humans) is fluid and hard to measure precisely. - It is empirical research -- i.e. facts are assumed to exist before the theories that explain them. 1. Basic or Pure Research: the objective is to obtain general knowledge for the understanding of human social behaviour by combining empirical inquiry and application of theory. 2. Applied or Policy-Oriented Research: it provides knowledge and information that can be used to change or influence reality. E.g.: being asked on the street by people who do interviews if you like one envase of milk or another, who are you going to vote for, etc. ### The scientific process 1. Formulate questions or problems related to reality The age teenagers start consuming alcohol is decreasing with time. 2. Establish provisional generalizations Teenagers consume alcohol due to the lack of alternatives for leisure 3. Verify generalizations We should confirm if the age of starting consuming alcohol is in fact lower, amount of consumptions, alternatives, relation between leisure and alcohol consumption. 4. Elaborate knowledge After verification, a theoretical statement will be elaborated about this reality.: "The lack of alternatives for leisure conducts to teenagers to start consuming alcohol at younger age" #### 'Six' Phases of Research 1. Problem definition: in the past 5 years, gender violence of teenagers has increased a 140% 2. Literature review: provides theoretical rationale by explaining the scientific discussion on a given topic or problem being studied, what other researchers have done, and its relationship with the topic - Conceptualization, contextualization, and classification of other studies on the same topic - Quality of literature should be assessed 3. Selection of research design (stablishes the phases needed in order to perform a research and explains the sequence in which they will occur. It specifies and combines different phases for the data collection and techniques), subjects, and data collection (must be clear who we are going to obtain the information and what information we need. Clear selection of information sources. Fieldwork is conducted) techniques 4. Data gathering 5. Data processing and analysis 6. Implications, Conclusions, and Recommendations: early access to pornography, decrease of sexual education in schools - It describes a broader context - It formulates objectives or aims - Specifies the scope of a given research, providing conceptualization, aims, context - State the hypotheses or expected outcome of the study #### Purpose of research 1. Exploratory - Broad observation of information with the purpose of obtaining many ideas. - It is the initial research - Identify different theories and conjectures. - Become familiar with the basic facts, people, and concerns involved. - Formulate questions and refine issues for future research. 2. Descriptive - Offers and describes main characteristics or profile of a group describing basic background information or a context. - Used very often in applied research. - Can be used to monitor changes in a given population of group - Often survey research. 3. Explanatory or analytical - Goes beyond simple description to model or identify relationships between phenomena - Used mostly in basic research - It involves theory testing or elaboration of a theory. 4. Evaluation - Focus on collecting data to assess and observe the effects of policies or plans. - Used in applied research assess initiative or programs to success, failure, or evolution. - Objectivity with brackets: we describe reality from our perspective, through the "glasses" we wear, and the filters we use. - Objectivity without brackets: it aims to understand reality the way it is, taking the position of an objective observer, located outside the social fact. Is this possible? **Paradigms in social science:** frameworks that guide how we understand and interpret the world. They are often implicit and widely accepted, shaping our observations and reasoning. Over time, these paradigms become entrenched, resisting change and a paradigm shift occurs when a new, revolutionary way of thinking emerges, offering fresh explanations and gradually replacing the old paradigm. - Macro theory deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole societies. Struggle between economic classes, international relations, interrelations among major institutions - Micro theory deals with issues of social life at the level of individuals and small groups. Social interactions, collective deliberation, social perceptions, sense-making ### Four 'knowledge paradigms' 1. **Positivism, post-positivism**: developed by Auguste Comte in the 19th century who coined the term sociology, is an approach that emphasizes observable facts and scientific methods to understand society. This approach thinks that science would replace religion (belief) and metaphysics (logic) by basing knowledge on observation through the senses. - Comte believed that society could be studied in the same objective and systematic way as the natural sciences, using methods such as direct observation, measurement, and experimentation. - According to positivism, knowledge is something that can be verified through these methods, prioritizing observable and measurable facts while minimizing abstract theories or subjective interpretations. - They try to achieve the highest level of information with the lowest numbers possible. They prefer simpler explanations that account for the most observable variables and emphasize parsimony---the idea that the simplest explanation that covers the most facts is usually the best. - This approach typically uses quantitative methods such as surveys or experiments to test hypotheses, verify theories, and establish cause-and-effect relationships. In positivism, reality is seen as independent of human perception, and the researcher remains a neutral observer, standing apart from the subject of study. 2. **Constructivism**: emerged in contrast to positivism and became a contender view of sociology in the early 20^th^ century, focusing on how individuals create their own meanings based on their experiences, rather than being directly stimulated by external reality. - Researcher looks for the complexity of meanings, rather than narrowing down meanings into a few categories. The researcher plays an active role in interpreting these meanings, acknowledging that their own perspectives and interactions with participants influence the research process. - Strong reliance on participants' views, and interactive construction of meaning - Researcher constructs theory inductively from observations of meaning-constructions by social actors. 3. **Critical theory:** emerged first in the 1920s and 30s, particularly through the work of the Frankfurt School, specifically from the Marxists, who defended that the world can be explained through the theory of confrontation, and it challenges the dominant views of social reality by highlighting power dynamics, inequality, and oppression. - The emphasis is on exposing social reality as oppressive for marginalized groups. There is thus an explicit normative touch to critical theory in that it advocates an action agenda for political reform. - In research, critical theorists often examine how power operates in society, analyzing both the structures that perpetuate inequality and the ideologies that justify them. This paradigm may use both qualitative and quantitative methods, but its focus is typically on unveiling how economic, political, and social systems contribute to the marginalization of certain groups. - Critical theory research is activist-oriented, aiming to empower disadvantaged groups and contribute to social reform. It encourages researchers to engage with participants in ways that recognize and address the power dynamics at play in the research process itself. 4. **Structural functionalism:** views society or any social entity as analogous to a biological organism, with various parts that work together to maintain the whole. - This paradigm, rooted in the work of early sociologists like Émile Durkheim and later developed by figures such as Talcott Parsons, is concerned with the functions that different elements of society serve in contributing to social order and stability. Each part of society, whether it be institutions like education, family, religion, or legal systems, is seen as serving a specific purpose that helps society function smoothly. - From this perspective, the social world is made up of interrelated components, each fulfilling roles that contribute to the continuity and maintenance of the larger system. Social institutions, norms, and values are seen as mechanisms that uphold social equilibrium by regulating behavior and ensuring cooperation among individuals. For instance, education is viewed as a means of socializing individuals into shared values, while the legal system is seen as enforcing those values to maintain social order. - In research, structural functionalism often takes a macro-level approach, focusing on the broad structures and systems that influence behavior rather than individual experiences. Researchers look for the \"functions\" that different aspects of society serve and how they contribute to the overall stability or dysfunction of the social system. Critics of structural functionalism argue that it tends to focus too much on social cohesion and stability, sometimes overlooking conflict, inequality, and social change. Inductive, sometimes called round theory (observation pattern tentative hypothesis theory) Deductive (theory hypothesis observation confirmation)  Research Ethics: moral principles that guide the conduct of the research. A fundamental principle of research ethics is the pursuit of truth, meaning that researchers must be committed to finding and reporting the truth, even if the results are unexpected or contrary to their hypotheses. - Research Governance: involves the establishment of shared standards and mechanisms for managing and overseeing research. These frameworks ensure that institutions follow established ethical and procedural norms, and that research is conducted according to the law and best practices. It includes mechanisms for monitoring research progress and enforcing sanctions if research is found to violate ethical guidelines. **6 keys principles:** primarily concerned with the rights, dignity, and safety of participants. Researchers must respect individuals\' autonomy, obtain informed consent, and ensure that participants are not subjected to harm. They are also responsible for ensuring privacy and confidentiality. 1. Integrity and Quality: research should be carefully designed, reviewed, and carried out to ensure the highest standards of integrity and scientific accuracy. Researchers must pursue the truth objectively and contribute to the advancement of knowledge without distortion. 2. Informed Consent: It is crucial that research participants are fully informed about the nature of the study. They should know they are being interviewed, understand that their information will be used for scientific purposes, and consent to participate voluntarily, knowing their participation is fully voluntary and their consent can be withdrawn at any time. Information sheets that have to be the content of signed consent forms. It is also important who signs since kids need their parent\'s consent, or for instance women who suffer from violence (working with vulnerable groups) 3. Confidentiality and Anonymity: Researchers must respect the confidentiality of the information provided by participants and respondents should remain anonymous unless they explicitly give consent to share their identities. 4. Voluntary Participation: participants are not coerced or manipulated in to participate. They should feel free to decline or withdraw from the study without facing any negative consequences. 5. Harm Avoidance: all necessary precautions must be taken to ensure that participants do not experience any physical, emotional, or psychological harm as a result of their involvement in the study. 6. Independence of Research: Research must be conducted independently, free from conflicts of interest. Any potential bias or partiality must be explicitly disclosed to ensure that the findings are unbiased and that the research maintains its scientific credibility. Implementation: the principal investigator (PI) has all the responsibility to conduct the research according to the principle. The institution employing the PI must ensure it as well, particularly when primary data collection is involved, as this may raise ethical concerns. Secondary data, while generally less contentious, still requires careful evaluation to ensure ethical compliance. Ethics in practice: proposals need to demonstrate what ethical approval is required and how this will be achieved - in signing off a proposal an institution is indicating it concurs with this (all ticks in the list have to be checked). All legal requirements must be met, e.g. data protection, health and safety, privacy laws, IPR, etc. Data cannot be stored or transferred to a country outside unless the country has equivalent levels of protection for personal data. The researcher needs to be alert to unanticipated ethical issues that arise in the course of carrying out research. Risk in social research: refers to the potential physical or psychological harm, discomfort, or stress that might be generated by research. The wide range of methods used in research means there is a diverse range of potential risks that may need to be managed Includes risk to a subject's personal social standing, privacy, personal values and beliefs, links to family & wider community, and position within an occupational (work-related) setting. Potential for harm can also arise from revealing information related to illegal, sexual, or deviant behaviour. Process vs variance questions ----------------------------- There are different types of goals that researchers may have when conducting research: personal, practical, and intellectual goals. These goals refer to the motivations the researcher has, the practices or outcomes that a study intends to influence, and the issues that a study intends to illuminate. They will also influence the design of your study and will serve to justify why your study is worth doing. Another important exercise is to begin to identify and formulate your research questions. Maxwell (2005) highlights the influence of our personal, practical, and intellectual goals. *In order to articulate your research questions you need to think about what you already know and build on that to identify what you don't know yet, or what you don't know enough about.* That is why Maxwell says that the key is to identify what you want to understand, that is, your intellectual goals. Your research questions are those that you will ask of your data in order to analyze it and gain a new understanding of your problem of practice. Following this logic, the next goal is to understand the differences and particularities of asking qualitative and quantitative research questions. Based on the review of literature that you may have done you can provide a preliminary explanation of "what you think is going on" with your research problem. You have a preliminary theory about it. This preliminary theory demonstrates how our problem is scientifically defined, explained, and probably defines the relevance and the academic discussion about it, exploring the different approaches conducted about it. Theories are also an important source of definition of research questions. One reason is that a theory expresses what you supposed to be the case with the problem you want to investigate, and therefore, it is also the starting point to identify what you don't know, what you want to explore and come to understand. Research questions are those that state what you want to find out in your exploration and analysis of empirical data, in order to gain or develop new knowledge about a problem. You may have collected this data yourself, or you may use existing data. In any case, research questions define what you are asking of a set of data that represents an actual empirical phenomenon. Qualitative and quantitative research are good for addressing or investigating different types of research questions, and in consequence, they use different types of data as evidence in building a case or explanation and employ different methods of analysis and interpretation. While you may see your study as a quantitative or qualitative one, it is important not to rush this decision before you clarify your research questions. The research question should drive the choice of approach, not the reverse depending on how you make the question, it will be more constructivist or positivist research. WHAT KIND OF QUESTION ARE YOU ASKING? Definitions and Examples of Process vs. Variance Questions - Process questions are designated to explore how or why something happens. Essentially, these types of questions are invaluable to researchers who want to understand something critical about human experience and they typically involve more qualitative research, exploring the complexity of events or actions rather than seeking to quantify relationships between variables. Because they privilege personal and/or group meaning, process questions are not linear (because they don't follow a predictable pattern), the findings from one do not necessarily lead to the findings from another in a predictable manner focus on quantifiable relationships between variables, aiming to predict or explain outcomes. - variance question is intended to track trends, to examine the prevalence of a problem or finding, to show the relationships between and among variables related to a particular phenomenon, and predict outcomes. They aim to explain patterns or correlations that can help predict outcomes focus on understanding the steps, reasons, or experiences behind a phenomenon, often in a more qualitative way. For example, if you want to know if the project you designed to analyze "the effects of education and political sophistication on support to ethnic integration policies", you would need to understand relationships between phenomena, what changed, how much was changed, so you will know at the end why it is the way it is. You would address these questions by tracking the patterns and changes in the numbers of support to policies, in a set period, looking for interactions between and among the variables you identified as key at the outset of the study, and testing the strength of your findings. UNIT 2. The research strategy and process ========================================= Formulating a research problem refers to identifying what it is that you want to find out about from a positivistic perspective (variance question). ### Steps in the formulation of a research problem 1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you. 2. Dissect the broad area into subareas. 3. Select what is of most interest to you. 4. Raise research questions. 5. Formulate objectives 6. Assess your objectives 7. Double-check #### CONDITIONS FOR THE FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH TOPIC 1. Every research topic must rely on a social fact and a specific aspect we want to know about that social fact. a. Social fact: What to research? (Group, community, behaviour, opinion, etc) b. Aspect: Searching for what? 2. The research topic in social sciences must be social 3. The research object has to be precise and concrete, never vague and generic. This precision and concretion is effective by locating the social fact in a given space/location. 4. The research topic must not include judgments. A judgment is included when the research topic: c. Something is pre-supposed without testing d. It is judged as right or wrong, better or worse 5. The research topic must be observed and verified in reality through concrete and adequate procedures. This condition refers to how we are going to obtain the information. In order to do that, in the definition of our research object we must indicate the time frame and sources of information. 6. The research topic must be relevant. It is relevant when the results of the research are useful for our work and for persons, groups, or communities we work with A topic to research is considered relevant when: - It is a current topic - It affects a relevant part of the population - It affects a strategic part of the population - It improves a research instrument - It contributes to the theoretical improvement of a topic - It fills a spot in current research - It gives access to impossible data or information The research topic must be defended through the definition of concepts implicit in it. Example: Research on the types and patterns of contacts, agreements, and programs between the city of Bilbao and other international cities. It will be analyzed through analysis of programs developed, several agreements, countries, fields of action, etc It will be necessary to define: - The social fact: agreements developed - Aspect: classification, countries, topics covered The research topic must be defended through the definition of concepts implicit in it. The definition of concepts must fulfil 2 essential functions for social research. 1. Ordering function: since it leads our research action establishing boundaries to the research object. 2. Communication function: since it allows the transmission and understanding of the results of the research, therefore, the definition of concepts must be done in a way in which those concepts are perfectly identifiable in reality and confusion will be avoided. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS MUST FULFILL THREE CONDITIONS: 1. There must be agreement and continuity in the meaning of concepts along the research. 2. It must be clear and precise. 3. It must refer to something observable, it is, and its content needs to be measurable by concrete techniques. Regarding the procedure, a way to proceed with the definition of concepts is normally the following: - To examine as many definitions of the conceptual framework as possible. - To try to understand the core of meaning where most definitions are pointing - To formulate a tentative definition based on that core of meaning. - To see if that temptation definition includes all relevant aspects of the concept related to the objectives of the research Specification of research objectives: before starting the research, every researcher must ask him/herself what the objectives of that social research are, it is, what s/he wants to know about that specific research object. When a topic has been selected, we must proceed to formulate the research objectives. The research objective is a clear and precise statement of the goals to be reached with the research. Utility of the objectives: - To lead the research - It allows to assess the fulfillment of those objectives at the end of the research process To make sure at the end of the research those initial objectives have been reached, these must be revised during the research process. Specification of research objectives We must differentiate between general objectives and specific objectives of the research: - the general objective (broad objective) is the statement in which we explain the general action that will be conducted during the research. The general objective refers to the whole research project. - the specific objectives (smaller ones) indicate what we intend to conduct in every stage of the research. Specific objectives include partial aspects of the research (usually 4 small objectives). - Both objectives together present the goal In a broad sense, the sum of the specific objectives equals the general objective and therefore equals the expected outcomes of the research. #### HOW TO WRITE DOWN THE OBJECTIVES? - An objective is a statement in which we express an action to be conducted. - Therefore, it must be started with strong verbs, which express actions, followed by the phenomenon in which this action will be conducted. - Afterwards, we indicate the object of study, it is, the social phenomenon or its related parts to be studied, finally indicating the main goal to be fulfilled with this research action. Requisites to formulate the research objectives: - Focus on the solution of the problem. - Be a realist. - Be measurable. - Be congruent. - Be relevant. - To be written avoiding subjective words. - To specify the existing factors that take us to do this research. Your objectives grow out of your research questions. The main difference between objectives and research questions is how they are written. Formulate objectives - Your objectives grow out of your research questions. You have to choose between doing it as a research question or general objectives, we do not have to do both questions at the same time - The main difference between objectives and research questions is how they are written. - Objectives transform research topics or research questions into behavioural aims by using action-oriented words such as \'to find out\', \'to determine\', \'to ascertain\' and \'to examine', 'to measure', and 'to explore'. Example: 1. To determine the effect of lack of public money on social policies 2. To identify public policy areas more affected by the cuts 3. To identify differences in countries in terms of the reduction of budget and terms of the areas most affected (here there is a relationship and variance) To assess the objectives, you have to examine your objectives to ascertain the feasibility of achieving them in the light of the time, resources (financial and human), and technical expertise at your disposal. #### Example Research topic: The effect of exposure to religious diversity on attitudes toward democracy in culturally diverse countries Topic: Attitudes toward democracy Aspect: Effect of exposure to religious diversity. GENERAL OBJECTIVES GENERAL RESEARCH QUESTION -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ To Identify the relationship between exposure to/belonging to ethnic and religious diversity groups on attitudes towards democracy in ethnically diverse societies Is exposure and/or belonging to ethnic and religious diversity groups a challenge to supporting democracy in ethnically diverse societies? SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION To explain the relationship between exposure to ethnic diversity and perception of political conflict To what extent being exposed to or sharing spaces with religious diversity is related to the perception of political conflict? To understand the relationship between the perception of religious connectivity and support for democracy Is the degree of perception of religious conflict or religious distance affecting democratic support in ethnic and religious countries? Does living in a context of a higher level of religious conflict affect in higher degree of support for democracy? To identify whether the perception of the degree of diversity, in terms of the number of groups generates higher challenges to support towards democracy Is the perception of diversity, understood in terms of exposure in daily life to several religious groups, affecting people´s support of democracy in those countries? Literature review: a basic strategy of research that consists of going to the bibliographic sources and searching for information that other authors have gathered concerning our research topic. Where is the core of this academic research? A literature review of previous research about a specific topic is one of the first steps to take: - It allows us to get familiar with the topic, its background, and methodology already applied. - It allows to structure the main ideas of the study in a specific study design, indicating: - Relevant aspects to cover (hypotheses to test). - Subjects to analyze (characteristics of the population to be observed) - Strategies and tactics for gathering information and data analysis after previous experiences - The information obtained through the literature review Will describe the knowledge we have on the chosen topic. ### TYPES OF DATA - Primary: original data gathered by researchers, through the application of one or several techniques for obtaining data (survey, interview, direct observation, etc.) - Secondary: gathered by other researchers, not involved in our research. This information has not been explicitly produced for our research objectives. - Primary and secondary data are not conflicting, but complementary: secondary research is considered to be an extension and usual starting point of primary research. PUBLIC DOCUMENTS OR OFFICIAL ARCHIVES - Documents or internal materials, not published: documents generated and available inside a specific organization; files, cases attended, reports, academic files. This kind of information is generally private, which might be an obstacle to its access. The researcher should apply this information formally to the organization. - External documents; published: produced to provide information: official bulletins, public journals, official statistics. **INFORMATION BY MASS MEDIA**: all societies generate material to inform, entertain, or persuade their citizens. This material appears in newspapers, films, radio broadcasting, and television. Mass media can be used as a means for: - General documentation: they allow for identification and understanding of a specific period with documentation on the facts and public opinion - Documentation on specific social groups: by knowing the target social group, we can also know which are the interests of those specific social groups. It´s important to highlight the changes introduced by new information and communication technologies. **NEW TECHNOLOGIES:** up to a short time ago, the process of literature review was strictly limited to libraries, locating bibliographies, and explaining the sources in the research. Currently, with the new technologies and their worldwide access, the strict analysis of the bibliography is insufficient. Computers are today the main system for literature review. It is recommended to do research based on books rather than websites or articles. - Through the computer we can access a very rich variety of information about or topic. - Internet is the main provider of information from all parts of the world - Ebsco host, Jstor, and Ingenta Connect are very powerful tools for accessing articles and literature Advantages of this "new order": - It provides access to a great amount of information practically and economically. - It allows the use and analysis of big files - It can search numerous data sources simultaneously. - It can print and save documents. Everything should be related to a concept. The theory is the compilation of precise conceptualization of the topic of research - View, compare, classify - Extract the common core - Come up with a definition and conceptualization of your research topic for the whole research State of the art (theoretical framework): One more related to the scope of the question, the other to the structure. One way is first conceptualization and second analysis. Another way is to answer all questions we find during this research. Analyze what has been said on the topic. - Identify different studies - Identify and explain their contexts - Summarize their conclusions - Classify these approaches Formulate hypotheses: hypotheses should be tentative answers to your research questions, or if you have formulated objectives, there should be one hypothesis related to each objective. **HYPOTHESIS:** scientifically, hypotheses are statements about the tentative outcomes of the research question. The researcher poses hypotheses to test if, during the whole research process, those tentative results are indeed confirmed or rejected. The purpose of the hypothesis is to suggest explanations for certain facts and to guide the research of others Hypotheses must be tested with objective data, in such a way that the results of the research can confirm, modify or reject the hypotheses. Hypotheses are a guide to: - Know the data we must collect. - Define the way we are going to organize our analysis. A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research question: it is a hunch and a possible explanation for a cause. A hypothesis is a potential argument. An orientation: they are the intuition previous to research, not a statement of facts. They are provisional: previous ideas about the phenomenon to study can be modified afterwards. It is not a theory: They are the step between the theory and the research which leads us to discover new facts. Examples - Younger people are the ones who drink the most alcohol in society. - Among young people, girls consume more alcohol than young men. - The higher consumption of alcohol among young adults is due to a higher presence of this group in leisure spaces. Conditions for their formulation 1. Hypotheses must be related to the research topic transform each specific question into a hypothesis 2. Hypotheses must be conceptually clear and easily comprehensible, and the terms used should be used in a very rigorous and precise sense, excluding all ambiguity. 3. Hypotheses must be verifiable, it is, they must be measurable. In social research, we normally can measure almost everything, since there is a very wide extended range of instruments. The purpose of a hypothesis is to indicate the direction of the investigation or the research and to suggest what facts are to be collected. The formulation should: - Contain conceptual clarity - Avoid subjective referents - Be specific and precise - Relate to a body of knowledge - Relate to the Research Questions There are 3 main difficulties in formulating a hypothesis: - Phrasing the hypothesis properly - Absence of a conceptual or theoretical framework - Not using that theoretical framework logically WHERE DO WE GET OUR HYPOTHESES FROM? Knowledge of reality. From a critical knowledge of theories From findings of other research which left unsolved doubts From the confrontation of ideas with colleagues, competent people, interested in the topic Conceptualization is a process of defining the agreed meaning of the terms used in a study. - Indicators are identified to mark the presence or absence of a concept. - Some concepts have more than one aspect or facet, called dimensions. - The interchangeability of indicators means that if several indicators represent the same concept, they should behave in the same way as the concept. From Conceptualization to Operationalization: from conceptualization, the researcher creates a nominal definition to identify the focus of the study. An operational definition is created to define the procedures or steps used in measuring a concept. An operational definition must be specific and unambiguous. CONCEPTUALIZATION OPERATIONALIZATION ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The process of defining or specifying concepts The process by which a researcher precisely specifies how a concept will be measured Involves defining or specifying what we mean when using certain terms Involver developing specific research definitions that will bring about empirical observations representing those concepts in the real world The main purpose is refining and specifying abstract concepts The main purpose is to remove vagueness and make sure that concepts are measurable First step in the measurement process Second step in the measurement process **Conceptualization:** specifying or defining what we mean when using certain terms. Thus, this involves agreeing on precise verbal definitions. When researchers conceptualize a topic, they search for existing definitions by general means (online search, dictionaries) as well as by academic means (textbooks, respected academics in the field, journal articles). For example, if you are doing a research study on gender and education, you'll need to conceptualize both these terms. Conceptualization is the first step in the measurement process for a research study. **Operationalization:** the process by which a researcher precisely specifies how a concept will be measured. Thus, this involves developing specific research definitions that will bring about empirical observations representing those concepts in the real world. Operationalization works by recognizing specific indicators that represent the ideas we are going to research. For instance, if you are researching health, indicators for the concept of health may include factors like physical health, emotional health, and lifestyle. The purpose of operationalization is to remove vagueness and make sure that all variables in the study are measurable or observable. One best way to identify indicators is to study the theoretical and empirical work done on the same subject. It will give you specific examples of how important concepts in a study have been measured. You can use the same indicators as these scholars, or you can identify their weaknesses in measures they have used and improve them. **Difference Between Conceptualization and Operationalization:** Conceptualization is the process of defining or specifying concepts, while operationalization is the process by which a researcher precisely specifies how a concept will be measured. - Process: while conceptualization involves defining or specifying what we mean when using certain terms, operationalization involves developing specific research definitions that will bring about empirical observations representing those concepts in the real world. - Purpose: the main purpose of conceptualization is refining and specifying abstract concepts, while the main purpose of operationalization is removing vagueness and making sure that concepts are measurable. - Order: another difference between conceptualization and operationalization is that conceptualization is the first step in the measurement process, while operationalization is the second step. - Nominal definition: basic definition agreed upon by most people - Operational definition: specifies exactly how the concept will be measured - Operationalization: the development of specific research procedures that will result in empirical observations representing those concepts in the real world need to construct precise definitions in empirical terms so concepts and variables can be measured. Complicated concepts have dimensions and indicators - Dimensions are specific aspects of a concept - Indicators are grouped by dimensions The end product of conceptualization is the specification of a set of indicators of what we have in mind, indicating the presence or absence of the concept. The interchangeability of indicators: if several different indicators all represent the same concept, then all of them will behave the same way that the concept would behave. - Measurement reliability: an instrument consistently measures the variable of interest. For an instrument to be valid, it must also be reliable. A reliable instrument, however, is not necessarily valid. It needs to be as specific as possible. - Measurement validity: ¿Does the empirical measure observe what it purports to observe? ¿Does the measure appropriately (adequately and accurately) reflect the meaning of the concept? the observations reflect the true meaning of the concept. ### DEFINITION OF VARIABLES Variables are characteristics of a research topic. They can adopt different values or can also be expressed in different categories. - Example: a variable is a colour, and its categories can be black, red, white, or green. They are susceptible to change or variation (that´s why they are called "variable") - Example: A variable is the social position of a person. It can be measured by age, gender, educational level, and Socio-Economic status. OPERATIONALISATION: is the process through which we intend to move from general variables to intermediate indicators and empirical variables. (it is, to transform general aspects into others more immediately operative). The steps are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Practical interest: it´s the condition to be able to study general variables referred to as non-meascial facts. This way we can carry out our research with measurable indicators. Steps for operationalization. Social indicators: indicators are instruments and data that can be directly observed, measured, and controlled. - They are measurement instruments that make observations objective and make also dimensions measurable. - They are subdimensions of variables - They are ITEMS - It´s the maximum degree of operationalization TYPOLOGY OF RESEARCH: in all research projects we must define which type of research we are going to carry out. - According to its objectives it will be: representative or explanatory - According to the TIMING it will be: sectional or longitudinal - According to its CHARACTER it will be: quantitative or qualitative - According to its SOURCES it will be: primary or secondary According to its GOAL it will be: basic or applied In all research projects, we must identify which TECHNIQUES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH we are going to use observation, survey, interviews, and focus groups. ###### A few designs Cross-Sectional Design: it is used for research that collects data on relevant variables one time only from a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena. They provide a snapshot of the variables included in the study, at one particular point in time. Cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, for example, the U.S. Census. - Advantages: data on many variables, data from a large number of subjects, data from dispersed subjects, data on attitudes and behaviours, good for exploratory research, generates hypotheses for future research, data useful to many different researchers - Disadvantages: increased chances of error, increased cost with more subjects and each location, inability to measure change, inability to establish cause and effect, no control of independent variable, difficulty to rule out rival hypotheses, static Longitudinal Design: it collects data over long periods. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct periods. This allows the researcher to measure changes in variables over time. Time Series Design: it collects data on the same variable at regular intervals in the form of aggregate measures of a population. They are useful for: - establishing a baseline measure - describing changes over time - keeping track of trends - forecasting future (short-term) trends. - Advantages: data is easy to collect, easy to present in graphs, easy to interpret, can forecast short-term trends - Disadvantages: data collection method may change over time, difficult to show more than one variable at a time, needs qualitative research to explain fluctuations, assumes present trends will continue unchanged Panel Design: they collect repeated measurements from the same people or subjects over time and reveal changes at the individual level. - Advantages: reveals individual level changes, establishes time order of variables, can show how relationships emerge - Disadvantages: difficult to obtain an initial sample of subjects, difficult to keep the same subjects over time, repeated measures may influence subjects\' behaviour UNIT 3. Quantitative methodology and analysis ============================================= Statistical method (I am 10 in political ideology, 1 being left and 10 right) n=20 means that 20 persons were asked, the n has to be small, and the bigger N is used with the whole population #### Types of Data There is a fundamental distinction between two types of data: qualitative and quantitative. The way we typically define them, we call data \' quantitative\' if it is in numerical form and \'qualitative\' if it is not. Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings and so on, can be considered qualitative data. - Qualitative research aims at understanding. By quantitative we mean that the methods is used to analyse quantitative data. This means that the data will enter the analysis in the form of numbers. It answers primarily to how questions. - Quantitative research aims at (causal) explanation and they are not rendered into numbers for analysis. It answers primarily to why questions. Both qualitative and quantitative research can aim to describe social reality. Complementary - not contradictory, different kinds of research questions and objects of research with different perspectives on the same research objects/questions. #### The quantitative method Based on the idea that social phenomena can be quantified, measured and expressed numerically. The information about a social phenomenon is expressed in numeric terms that can be analysed by statistical methods. The observations can be directly numeric information or can be classified into numeric variables. Observation are transformed into a data matrix in which each observation unit (e.g. individual) occupies one row and each variable one column. The data matrix is the starting point for the analysis. - Strengths: it enables the research and description of social structures and processes that are not directly observable. Well-suited for quantitative description, comparisons between groups, areas etc. Description of change. Analysis and explanation of (causal) dependencies between social phenomena. - Weaknesses: Simplifies and "compresses" the complex reality: abstract and constrained perspective. Only applicable for measurable (quantifiable) phenomena Presumes relatively extensive knowledge of the subject matter to be able to ask "correct" questions. Difficult to study processes or "dynamic" phenomena: produces a static view of reality Description of actors' perspectives, intentions and meanings difficult. Observation units and variables variable = observable and measurable characteristic of an observation unit, which varies across different units observation unit (i.e. research unit, case) individual, group (e.g. family, household, couple), institution, organization or community (e.g. school, enterprise, municipality), text (e.g. newspaper article, a novel, research), event or activity (war, strike, revolution) Units of Analysis Can be: - Individuals, Groups, Organizations, Social artefacts (ie. products of social beings, for example, books, poems, paintings, automobiles, buildings, songs, pottery, jokes and scientific discoveries). Behaviours (eg: social interactions, such as friendship choices, court cases, traffic accidents. #### Variables You won\'t be able to do very much in research unless you know how to talk about variables. A variable is any entity that can take on different values. Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person\'s country can be assigned a value. - A variable is a characteristic which varies between subjects. Examples of variables are --- age, sex, education, labour force status, attitude to life, family income and vote in a past election --- It can be seen that these are indeed "variables" in that not everyone has the same value as any of them. It is this variation that makes collecting data on many subjects necessary and worthwhile - A category is a specific value on a variable. For instance, the variable sex or gender has two categories: male and female. Or, the variable agreement might be defined as having five categories - A subject is the smallest unit yielding information in the study. They may be families, companies, neighbourhoods, countries, or whatever else is relevant to a particular study. There is also much variation in the term itself, so that instead of "subjects", a study might refer to "units", "elements", "respondents" or "participants", or simply to "persons", "individuals", "families" or "countries", for example. Whatever the term, it is usually clear from the context what the subjects are in a particular analysis. In collecting quantitative data, we determine the values of a set of variables for a group of subjects and assign numbers to them. This is also known as measuring the values of those variables. Here, for example, we are measuring a person's sex in this sense when we assign a variable called "Sex" the value 1 if the person is male and 2 if she is female. The value assigned to a variable for a subject is called a measurement or an observation. Our data thus consists of the measurements of a set of variables for a set of subjects. In the data matrix, each row contains the measurements of all the variables in the data for one subject, and each column contains the measurements of one variable for all of the subjects. The number of subjects in a set of data is known as the sample size and is typically denoted by n. In an opinion poll, for example, this would be the number of people who responded to the questions in the poll. A common problem in many studies is nonresponse or missing data, which occurs when some measurements are not obtained. For example, some survey respondents may refuse to answer certain questions, so that the values of the variables corresponding to those questions will be missing for them. #### Types of variables Information on a variable consists of the observations (measurements) of it for the subjects in our data, recorded in the form of numbers. First, a particular way of measuring a variable may or may not provide a good measure of the concept of interest. For example, a measurement of a person's weight from a well-calibrated scale would typically be a good measure of the person's true weight. But if we ask. the question "How many units of alcohol did you drink in the last seven days?" So just because you have put a number on a concept does not automatically mean that you have captured that concept in a useful way. For example, social scientists are often interested in studying attitudes, beliefs or personality traits, which are very difficult to measure directly. Two related distinctions: - Between different measurement levels - Between continuous and discrete variables Measurement levels When a numerical score (measurement) of a particular variable is allocated to a subject, it becomes possible to relate that score to the scores of other subjects. The measurement level of the variable indicates how much information the number provides for such comparisons. ### Measurement levels - A variable is measured on a nominal scale if the numbers are simply labels for different possible values (levels or categories) of the variable. - A variable is measured on an ordinal scale if its values do have a natural ordering. It is then possible to determine not only whether two subjects have the same value, but also whether one or the other has a higher value. - A variable is measured on an interval scale if it is shown in intervals of a previous specific source variable and its values are comparable. One example is the age in intervals. - A variable is measured on a ratio scale if it has all the properties of an interval level variable and also a true zero point. For instance, the proportion of members of a company who have a university degree The simplest kind of nominal variable is one with only two possible values, for example, sex recorded as "male" or "female" or an opinion recorded just as "agree" or "disagree". Such a variable is said to be binary or dichotomous. As with any nominal variable, codes for the two levels can be assigned in any way we like (as long as different levels get different codes), for example, 1=Female and 2=Male. A variable is measured in a Scale (pure scale) if all categories can be rank ordered and an equal distance between the units can be assumed. Measures such as distance, weight, and age are measured on a scale. Also, other kinds of measures in a questionnaire, with enough number of categories, in which the minimum and maximum values are specified, but equal distance between the units is assumed. This distinction is based on the possible values a variable can have: A variable is discrete if its basic unit of measurement cannot be subdivided. Thus a discrete variable can only have certain values, and the values between these are logically impossible. For example, the marital status variable \[1\] and the health variable \[2\], or any other count variables such as the number of children, or the number of books. A variable is continuous if it can in principle take infinitely varied fractional values. The idea implies an unbroken scale of possible score values. Age is an example of a continuous variable, as we can in principle measure it to any degree of accuracy we like --- years, days, minutes, seconds, microseconds. Similarly, distance, weight and even income can be considered to be continuous. Another important distinction having to do with the term \'variable\' is the distinction between an independent and dependent variable. This distinction is particularly relevant when you are investigating cause-effect relationships. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent variable \-- your effects or outcomes. For example, if you are studying the effects of a new educational program on student achievement, the program is the independent variable and your measures of achievement are the dependent ones. Finally, there are two traits of variables that should always be achieved. Each variable should be exhaustive, it should include all possible answerable responses. For instance, if the variable is \"religion\" and the only options are \"Protestant\", \"Jewish\", and \"Muslim\", there are quite a few religions I can think of that haven\'t been included. The way to deal with this is to explicitly list the most common attributes and then use a general category like \"Other\" to account for all remaining ones. In addition to being exhaustive, the attributes of a variable should be mutually exclusive, no respondent should be able to have two attributes simultaneously. While this might seem obvious, it is often rather tricky in practice. For instance, you might be tempted to represent the variable \"Employment Status\" with the two attributes \"employed\" and \"unemployed.\" UNIT 4. Qualitative methods =========================== ### Features - - Natural setting as a source of data - Researcher acts as a human instrument - Inductive data analysis - Reports are descriptive -- Incorporating "voice" - Interpretive -- Aimed at discovering meaning - Pays attention to unique cases - Judged using special criteria of trustworthiness Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research: an important check on the trustworthiness of the researcher's interpretations in qualitative research is to compare one informant's description of something with another informant's description of the same thing. - Triangulation is a check on trustworthiness by comparing different information on the same topic. - Triangulation: Methods of triangulation, Interviews, observations, etc - Researcher triangulation: use a team of researchers. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | QUANTITATIVE | QUALITATIVE | +===================================+===================================+ | Internal validity did A cause B | Credibility Believable from | | | participant's view | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | External validity Are these | Transferability Can this finding | | findings generalized? | be transferred to other contexts? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Reliability are the measures | Dependability Would another | | repeatable? | researcher come to similar | | | conclusions? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Objectivity are the findings free | Confirmability Can the results be | | or researcher values? | confirmed or corroborated by | | | others | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ #### Observation Certain kinds of research questions can best be answered by observing how people act or how things look. Research role: a relationship acquired by and ascribed to the researcher in interactive data collection. There are different roles of observation: 1. Interviewer 2. Naturalistic Observer 3. Participant Observer 4. Participant Researcher 5. Inside Observer - Participant observation studies: The researcher participates as an active member of the group. - Non-participant observation studies: The researcher does not participate in an activity or situation. Naturalistic observations and simulations. Simulations are created situations in which subjects are asked to act out certain roles. 1. Observer Effect: The presence of an observer can have a considerable effect on the behaviour of those being observed, and affect the outcome of the study. Heisenberg´s uncertainty principle was adopted. "Reality changes only because of the fact of being observed". Unless a researcher is concealed, it is quite likely that they will have some form of effect on the individuals being observed. It is for that reason that participants should not be informed of the study's purpose until after data has been collected. -- Does this present ethical problems? -- How might a researcher reduce his or her impact on the setting? 2. Observer Bias: Refers to the possibility that certain characteristics or ideas of observers may bias what they "see". Observer expectations. Comparing notes or impressions among other researchers assists in reducing this threat. Coding Observational Data. Coding scheme -- categories an observer uses to record a person's or group's behaviour. Fixed vs. Open. An observer still must choose what to observe, even with a fixed coding scheme. Data are coded into categories that emerge as the analysis proceeds. ### Interviewing Interviewing is an important way for a researcher to check the accuracy of the impressions he or she gained through observation. Likely the most important data-collection technique for qualitative research Types of Qualitative Interviews: - Informal conversation: questions emerge from the immediate context - Semi-structured: topics are selected in advance. The researcher determines the sequence and wording during the interview. - Interviewing Behavior - Respect the culture of the group being studied - Respect the individual being interviewed - Be natural - Develop an appropriate rapport with the participant - Ask one question at a time - Ask the same question in different ways during the interview - Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer when in doubt - Vary who controls the flow of communication - Avoid leading questions - Don't interrupt What Are Qualitative Interviews? "Attempts to understand the world from the subjects\' point of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples\' experiences, to uncover their lived world before scientific explanations". Conversations in which responses are the main source of raw data. Participant\'s responses are open-ended and not restricted to choices provided by the researcher. QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Concerned with how people think and feel about the topics of concern to the research Use a structured survey instrument that asks all respondents the same questions in the same order to allow for statistical analysis. Gather broader, more in-depth information from fewer respondents (micro-analysis) Gather a narrow amount of information from a large number of respondents (macro-analysis) Open questions for greater depth and personal detail Closed questions for quantification, can be coded and processed quickly Necessary for the interview: techniques discussed, but are used in different ways. In the case of unstructured interviews. Allows the researcher to refer to key themes or subquestions and formulate questions. On the other hand, semi-structured interviews allow the researcher enough flexibility to re-word the questions to fit into the interview. 1. Unstructured Interviews Defined: Interviews in which neither the question nor the answer are predetermined and rely on social interaction between the researcher and informant to elicit information. A way to understand the complex behaviour of people without imposing any a priori categorization which might limit the field of inquiry. A natural extension of participant observation relying entirely on the spontaneous generation of questions in the natural flow of an interaction. 2. Semi-Structured Interviews: the researcher has an outline of topics or issues to be covered, but is free to vary the wording and order of the questions to some extent. Data is somewhat more systematic and comprehensive than in the informal conversational interview. The tone of the interview remains fairly conversational and informal. Requires an interviewer who is relatively skilled and experienced. Difficult to compare or analyze data. The most frequently used qualitative interview technique in LIS research 3. Structured Interviews: the interviewer adheres to a strict script, they can be less experienced or knowledgeable, and this type is easier to compare or analyze data ### Methods of Conducting a Personal Interview A personal interview involves a lot of preparation. Generally, a personal interview should go through the following 5 stages they are as follows. - Rapport Building: the Interviewer should increase the receptiveness of the respondent by making him believe that his opinions are very useful to the research, and is going to be a pleasure rather than an ordeal. - Introduction: an introduction involves the interviewer identifying himself by giving him his name, purpose and sponsorship if any. An introductory letter goes a long way in conveying the study's legitimacy. - Probing: probing is the technique of encouraging the respondents to answer completely, freely and relevantly. - The interviewer can either write the response at the time of the interview or after the interview. In certain cases, where the respondent allows for it, audio or visual aids can be used to record answers. - After the interview, the interviewer should thank the respondent and once again assure him of the worth of his answers and their confidentiality. ### Content analysis Content Analysis: a technique that enables researchers to study human behaviour through an analysis of communication through textbooks, essays, pictures, songs etc. A person or group's conscious and unconscious beliefs, attitudes, or values are often revealed in their communication. All procedures at some point convert the descriptive information into categories. There are two ways this might be done: 1. The researcher determines the categories before any analysis begins. These categories are based on previous knowledge, theory, and experience. 2. The researcher becomes very familiar with the descriptive information collected and allows the categories to emerge as the analysis continues. -- i.e., grounded theory Steps Involved in Content Analysis. - Determine objectives by obtaining information on the following: - Formulate themes for the organization - Check other research findings for validation - Obtain information useful in dealing with educational problems - Investigate possible relationships to test the hypothesis. - Define Terms: clearly define terms before or during the study. - Specify the Unit of Analysis. 1. Steps Involved in Content Analysis. Locate Relevant Data. Develop a Rationale. Conceptual links are needed to relate data to the objectives. Develop a Sampling Plan. Formulate Coding Categories. 2. Steps Involved in Content Analysis. Checking Reliability and Validity. Test-retest method. Analyze Data. Counting. Use descriptive statistical procedures such as frequencies and/or percentages. ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES -------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Unobtrusive Usually limited to recorded information. Useful means of analyzing interview and observational data Establishing validity. The question remains as to the true meaning of the categories themselves. Not limited by time and space to the study of present events Historical research findings might not be considered important today Relatively simple and economical The temptation to attribute a cause of a phenomenon vs. a reflection of it Focus Groups - Recruited to discuss particular topics. - One focus group is ONE unit of analysis, not one person, but one focus group. - Complement surveys. Often the 1st step is tapping critical questions to be used in a survey. Identify why people feel a certain way and elucidate steps in their decision-making process. Focus Group Methods - Ideal size: 6 -- 12 people and a moderator/note taker. - A series of groups is necessary for validity. - Homogeneity and anonymity in the selection of groups. People may open up with others who are perceived to think along similar lines AND whom they may never see again. Focus Group Methods, content: often segment according to expected meaningful differences (e.g. disease status, gender...). Running a focus group is the fine line between leading too much and not getting people to contribute. Important to keep the discussion on topic w/o shutting people down. No right or wrong answers Coding/Analyzing. Tapes are usually transcribed verbatim. Text is sorted into emergent themes by at least 2 researchers to ensure validity using the pile-sort method or computerized version. Themes are compared with field notes taken by a second researcher. For the thematic coding factors: 1. Frequency -- number of times something is mentioned 2. Specificity -- details 3. Emotion -- enthusiasm, passion, etc. in responses 4. Extensiveness -- how many different people said something The case study method --------------------- ### Types of cases 1. Descriptive (Configurative-Ideographic): These focus on a single case to describe it thoroughly, often seeking exceptions or unique aspects. For example, a study might examine a rare political agreement to understand the conditions that led to its success. Ideographic means that look for the exception 2. Plausibility Probes: it analyzes if it fulfils the conditions. These are exploratory studies used to determine whether a theory or hypothesis is worth deeper investigation. They test initial conditions and feasibility for broader research. 3. Most Likely Case Studies (MLCS): These analyze cases where a theory is most likely to apply. Success strengthens the theory; failure may disprove it. 4. Least Likely Case Studies (LLCS): These investigate exceptions to the norm, seeking to understand why specific outcomes differ from expected trends. They often contribute to new theory development. 5. Deviant Case Studies (Yin: critical cases?): similar to the descriptive case, but you analyze the exception, why is it so special? These investigate exceptions to the norm, seeking to understand why specific outcomes differ from expected trends. They often contribute to new theory development. Forming the Question: Case Studies testing theories can seem rather indeterminate when the research question is vague. The unit: Determining the units is also critical and aids in case selection and focus. The issue of construct validity will be important. How does one define and measure variables in a case study? That is a fundamental question related to reliability and internal validity. - Holistic: A single, unified unit of analysis (e.g., focusing solely on state leaders during the Cuban Missile Crisis). - Embedded: Multiple units within a broader context (e.g., examining leaders, bureaucracies, and military institutions in the same crisis). The Cuban Missile Crisis was explained by focusing not only on leaders but bureaucracies within their governments such as the US Air Force and Soviet Missile Forces ### TYPES OF COMPARABLE CASE STRATEGIES 1\. most similar system design (MSSD): The key is to identify what factor leads to dissimilar outcomes of Y when the cases appear rather similar in most regards. TABLAS 2\. Most Different System Designs: The key to this type of design is to understand that very different units/cases have the same outcome (Y variable). The search is then for a key explanatory variable common to the cases that all appear very different from each other. Single-Case Studies Illustrations -- often complementary with statistical methodologies Plausibility Probes -- similar to pilot projects to see if more extensive/intensive studies would be useful and feasible. Also called "exploratory." Deviant Cases -- Seek explanations for anomalies, which may lead to new theory development. Critical cases or other TESTS -- controversial ### Constructing Causal Theories (5 rules) 1. Theories should be internally consistent and solid, for the identification of the case and the establishment of the relationship between elements. The logic must not be contradictory. If so, then the explanatory power may be limited. ν "good description is better than bad explanation." (King, Keohane, & Verba 1994) 2. The hypotheses should be falsifiable: If one cannot think of any way for your arguments to be wrong, you have a problem. What type of evidence will falsify your theory? Non-falsifiable theories, like Marxism, because they make several normative claims, cannot be empirically verified fully. 3. Select Dependent Variables Carefully: ensuring they are truly dependent, making sure that variable is truly dependent and not endogenous. The variable should vary, do not truncate or limit through other aspects of research design. 4. MAXIMIZE CONCRETENESS: concepts should be concrete and operationalized clearly, narrowing the gap between abstract ideas (like culture or national interest) and measurable indicators, which enhances construct validity. This is the issue of construct validity. Make sure your writing regarding such issues is clear. External and internal validity 5. State theories to encompass as much as possible: theories should aim for generalization and leverage, encompassing a broad range of cases while providing insights that apply to both the study at hand and competing theories, despite potential challenges to external validity. The biggest problem in case selection is that they are often non-random, which can lead to biased inferences. Selecting cases based solely on their alignment with the hypothesis risks tautology. The best practice is to choose cases that allow for variation, enabling robust inferences. Random selection is optimal but not feasible in case studies. However, some case studies select the dependent variable in a biased manner. Do not select cases that are known to support the hypotheses. The cases that inspired the theory should also not be used as evidence (tautology). #### Case Selection and Randomness Case selection and randomness are key considerations in research design. Inferences drawn from case studies rely on a sample from a broader population, meaning that increasing the number of cases enhances the accuracy of conclusions. However, case studies, which often focus on a limited number of observations, are more prone to error when making broad inferences, although they excel at illustrating how specific processes function. A balance between explanation (process-oriented) and comparison (variance-oriented) approaches is critical for robust analysis. While statistical methods provide greater precision by assessing the overall significance and magnitudes of variable effects, case studies offer deeper insights into mechanisms and contexts. Researchers must remain realistic about the limitations of their chosen methodology and clearly articulate the trade-offs involved to ensure credibility and rigor in their claims. Seeking Variation through multiple cases: One can always gain more explanatory power by expanding observations across space or time. -- For space, add more countries, states, cities, etc. -- For time, expand into a panel or time series format across one or multiple cases. Single Case Studies and Variation How can a single case study be used for inferences? If it remains a single observation (N=1), it can not. The trick is to produce multiple N by breaking into subunits or time units. -- Studying Mexico states. -- Studying policy changes across time.