Experimental Psychology Reviewer PDF

lOMoARcPSD|45836826 Experimental-Psychology-Reviewer Experimental Psychology (Southwestern University PHINMA) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by her cart (enzz@exdo...

lOMoARcPSD|45836826 Experimental-Psychology-Reviewer Experimental Psychology (Southwestern University PHINMA) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 CHAPTER 1: Experimental Psychology and conditions applied to subjects whose behaviors Scientific Method are measured and compared to test a hypothesis. Subject- the scientific term for an individual who Psychology- the science of behavior participates in research. Science- Latin “Scientia” or knowledge Testable- capable of being tested; typically used Commonsense Psychology- nonscientific data about a hypothesis. Three requirements must be gathering that shapes expectations and beliefs met for a testable hypothesis: procedures for and directs our behavior toward others manipulating the setting must exist, and the Confirmation bias- overlooking things that predicted outcome must be observable and might disconfirm our beliefs measurable. Overconfidence bias- a tendency of a person Theory- a set of general principles that attempts to overestimate their abilities to explain and predict behavior or other Scientific Method- steps to gather and verify phenomena. information, answer questions, explain Treatment- a specific set of antecedent relationships, and communicate this information conditions created by the experimenter and to others presented to subjects to test its effect on Determinism- there are specifiable causes for behavior. the way people behave, and these causes can Cause-and-effect relationship- the relation be discovered through research between a particular behavior and a set of Aristotle- assumed that order exists in the antecedents always preceding it. universe and can be described systematically by Pseudoscience- a field of study that gives the collecting empirical data appearance of being scientific but has no factual Empirical Data- observable or experienced data scientific basis (commonsense data collection) Antecedent conditions- all circumstances that Characteristics of Modern Science occur or exist before the event or behavior to be explained; also called antecedents The Scientific Mentality- behavior must follow Applied research- research that is designed to a natural order to be predicted. solve real-world problems. Gathering Empirical Data- systematic Basic research- research designed to test observation and classification of naturally theories or to explain psychological phenomena. occurring events Data- facts, and figures gathered from Seeking General Principles- having a observations in research. structuralized observation (theory and laws) Experimentation- the process is undertaken to Good thinking- organized and rational thought, demonstrate that particular behavioral events characterized by open-mindedness, objectivity, will occur reliably in certain specifiable and parsimony; a principal tool of the scientific conditions; a principal tool of the scientific method. method. Self-correction- the ability to accept the Laws- general scientific principles that explain uncertainty of their conclusions our universe and predict events. Publicizing Results- exchanging information Measurement- the systematic estimation of an through the data results to be able to exchange observable event's quantity, size, or quality; a failures as well as success principal tool of the scientific method. Replication- repeating research procedures to Methodology- the scientific techniques used to verify that the outcome will be the same as collect and evaluate psychological data. before; a principal tool of the scientific method. Observation- the systematic noting and recording of events; a principal tool of the scientific method. CHAPTER 2: Research Ethics Parsimony- an aspect of good thinking stating that the simplest explanation is preferred until Research Ethics- framework of values within ruled out by conflicting evidence; also known as which we conduct research Occam’s razor. Values- the foundation of the ability to judge Psychology experiment- a controlled between right and wrong procedure with at least two different treatment Morals- a system of belief (good or bad) Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 Ethics- determines if behavior is right or wrong Justice- the fairness in both burdens and Responsible Research- aims to advance benefits of research understanding of feelings, thoughts, and - The subjects don’t get the right benefits behaviors that benefits humanity rather than for them (iba ang nakinabang) satisfying idle curiosity. Legal and Ethical Guidelines- to protect The American Psychological Association Guidelines subjects of psychological research (Title 45, Section 46) The American Psychological Association Institutional Review Board (IRB)- review Guidelines- applies to psychologists and committee to evaluate studies before conducting students with the role of psychologists by and ensures the safety and protection of engaging in research or practice. participants. Minimal Risk- a risk that is no greater than Risk/Benefit Analysis- risks are outweighed by encountered in daily life or during a performance potential benefits or the knowledge to be gained of routine physical or psychological test Psychologist Robert Rosenthal- 3 reasons Examples: observations of public why poorly designed research can be unethical behavior, anonymous questionnaires, 1. Students, teachers, and administrators and some kinds of archival research will waste time that could be used for At Risk- the likelihood of a subject being beneficial educational experiences. harmed because of the nature of the research 2. This can lead to inaccurate and - one who is more likely to be harmed in unwarranted conclusions that may some way by participating in the damage society. research 3. Allocating time and money to poor- Commitments of researchers to the subjects- quality science will keep those finite pay subjects, give credit, maintain confidentiality, resources from better-quality science. and share results Assent- agreement of minor children ages seven and above as a participation requirement. Deception and Full Disclosure Informed Consent- give information on the experiment to make an informed decision. Confederate- an accomplice to the research - subjects agree to participate after being Debriefing- explaining the true nature and aware of the nature of the study. purpose of the study Mann (1994)- conducted an experiment that - The principle of full disclosure at the end demonstrated that most subjects/ participants of the experiment retain little information about the consent forms Extensive Post- Experimental Debriefing- to they signed remove the harmful beliefs resulting by the experiment The Evolution of Ethics in Research Attributive Projection- the process of projecting our trains onto another person (the Code of 1947- the basis of today’s ethical person is consciously aware of having the trait) standards Classical Projection (Freud)- the traits Belmont Report- a statement of government projected are those the person is not policy on research involving human subjects consciously aware of possessing. - Three basic ethical principles: respect for the person, beneficence, and justice Protecting the Welfare of Animal Subjects Three Principles of Belmont Report Animal Welfare- the humane care and treatment of animals (Animal Welfare Act 1966) Respect for Persons- every human is an Institutional Animal Care and Use autonomous person with the right to make their Committee (IACUC)- animal research review own decisions about the research (informed board consent) - To evaluate animal research before it Beneficence- an obligation to minimize the risk can be conducted of harm and maximize benefits to individuals Joseph Brady- studies the emotional behavior (risk/benefit analysis) of Rhesus Monkeys. Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 Objections to the Research Two Major Dimensions 1. The use of restraining chairs is stressful for the animals.  Degree of manipulation of antecedent conditions: the extent to which the researcher 2. The use of electric shock, which is also not set up the controlled condition (high or low specified manipulation) 3. The study was poorly designed with diminished  Degree of imposition of units: the extent to benefit because of the bias in the selection of which the researcher constraints, or limits, the monkeys responses a subject may contribute to the data. Animal Rights- the idea that all sensate species Five Nonexperimental Approaches are of equal values and rights  Phenomenology  Case studies Fraud in Science  Field studies Data Falsification- a breach in the ethical  Archival studies principle stated in APA standard  Qualitative studies Necessary Safeguards to keep fraud in Check: Types of Nonexperimental Approach 1. Peer review- The editor and experts review  Phenomenology- the description of an research articles before being accepted for individual’s immediate experience publication.  Case study- a descriptive record of an 2. Replication- The attempt to replicate the individual’s experiences, behaviors, or both, kept published findings of others by an outside observer 3. Scrutiny by Colleagues- a detailed examination of works by colleagues Five Major Purposes of Case Studies 1. They are a source of inferences, hypotheses, and Fraud- The act of falsifying and fabricating theories. published data 2. They are a source for developing therapy techniques. Plagiarism- a more familiar kind of fraud 3. They allow the study of rare phenomena. - To represent someone else’s ideas, 4. They provide exceptions or counterinstances to work, or written work as their own accepted ideas, theories, or practices. 5. They have persuasive and motivational value. CHAPTER 3: Alternatives to Case Studies Limitations Experimentation: Non-Experimental 1. working with only one or perhaps a few subjects Designs 2. not able to observe an individual directly all the time  Traditional psychology experiments- creating 3. subjects providing data for case studies might specific sets of antecedent conditions, or neglect to mention important information treatments, to test a hypothesis about behavior.  Deviant Case Analysis- an extension of the  Experimental approach- a researcher must be evaluative case study where deviant and able to set conditions for any individual who ordinary individuals is compared for significant ends up as a subject in the experiment. differences  Nonexperimental approach- used when an  Retrospective Data- data collected in the experiment is not practical or desirable. Used present that are based on recollections of past whenever testing a hypothesis in a real-life events situation is necessary.  Field Studies- used in the field or real-life  Internal validity- the degree to which a settings research design allows us to make causal  Focus Groups- a type of group interview, an statements organized discussion session with a small group  High internal validity- we can demonstrate with of people, usually led by a trained facilitator. certainty that the changes in behavior observed across treatment conditions were caused by Different Types of Field Studies treatment differences.  Naturalistic Observation- observing behaviors  External Validity- generalizability or applicability as they occur spontaneously in natural settings to people and situations outside the research  Ethology- to study behavior in the wild setting. as well as in captivity Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826  Systematic Observation- use of prearranged 2. Participants’ oral or written descriptions of strategy for recording observations in which their experiences of the phenomenon each observation is recorded using specific rules 3. Accounts of the phenomenon obtained from or guidelines so that observations are more literature, poetry, visual art, television, theatre, objective and previous phenomenological (and other) - INTERSECT- coding system developed research for scoring various kinds of teacher- student interactions. Has four types of responses (positive reinforcement, acceptance, remediation, and criticism) - Strange Situation- used to assess the quality of attachments that very young children (usually between the ages of 1 and 2) have forged with their parents or other caregivers Parts of Strange Situation 1. The experimenter introduces the parent and baby to the playroom and leaves. 2. The parent sits while the baby plays. 3. A stranger enters, sits, and talks to the parent. 4. The parent leaves, and the stranger offers comfort if the baby is upset. 5. The parent returns, greets the baby, and offers comfort. The stranger leaves. 6. The parent leaves the room. 7. The stranger enters and offers comfort. 8. The parent returns, greets the baby, comfort if necessary, and tries to interest the baby in toys - Reactivity- the tendency of subjects to alter their behavior or responses when they are aware of an observer’s presence - Unobtrusive measures- behavioral indicators can be observed without the subject’s knowledge  Participant-Observer studies- the researcher becomes part of the group being studied.  Archival study- a descriptive research method in which already existing records are reexamined for a new purpose  Qualitative research- relies on words rather than numbers for the data collected; it focuses on self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts. - Paradigm- the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures that are accepted within a particular discipline at a certain point in time  Contemporary or empirical phenomenology- relies on the researcher’s experiences or experiential data from other sources.  It also relies on these: 1. The researcher’s self-reflection on experiences relevant to the phenomenon of interest Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 Chapter 4: Alternatives to Experimentation:  Ordinal scale- the rank ordering of response Surveys and Interviews items.  Interval scale- measures magnitude or quantitative size using measures with equal  Survey research- a way of obtaining intervals between the values with no 0 points. information about people’s opinions, attitudes, Ex. Fahrenheit and centigrade temperature preferences, and behaviors simply by asking. scales  Surveys- allow gathering data about  Ratio scale- the highest level of measurement. experiences, feelings, thoughts, and motives It has equal intervals between all values and a that are hard to observe directly and are useful true zero point. Ex. height and weight, and time. for collecting data on sensitive topics because of anonymity.  Continuous dimension- traits, attitudes, and preferences dimension. Ex. Introversion vs Most Common Survey Techniques Extroversion, an individual can rate relatively  Written questionnaires high, low, or somewhere in the middle.  Face-to-face interviews The question should have these characteristics: Types of Survey Questions 1. Relevant to the central topic  Closed questions (also called structured 2. Easy to answer questions)- limited answers 3. Interesting Ex. 4. Answerable by most respondents  Do you smoke? 5. Closed format  On a scale from 1 to 10, how much do you like classical music?  Open-ended questions (also called open  Response styles- tendencies to respond to questions)- unlimited answers questions or test items in specific ways, Ex. regardless of the content.  Why do you prefer taking the train to fly?  What are your feelings about animal Different Response Styles rights?  Willingness to answer  Double-barreled (or compound)- two (or more)  Position preferences different ideas in the same question  Yea-saying and nay-saying Ex.  Do you like strawberries and cream?  Willingness to answer- comes whenever questions require specific knowledge about facts  Content analysis- coding behaviors using or issues. systematic observational techniques. It  Position preference- the tendency to choose evaluates and categorizes the content of each an option because of its location. When in doubt answer. about answers to multiple-choice questions, - A system for quantifying responses to some people always select a response in a open-ended questions by categorizing certain position, such as answer c. them according to objective rules or  Manifest content- the plain meaning of the guidelines. words that actually appear on the page.  Exhaustive- need to contain all possible  Yea-sayers- apt to agree with a question options. regardless of its manifest content (this is also  Level of measurement- scale used to measure called response acquiescence). a response.  Nay-sayers- tend to disagree no matter what they are asked (also known as response Four Levels of Measurement deviation)  Nominal  Context effects- occur when the content of the  Ordinal questions preceding a particular question  Interval influences how some respondents answer that  Ratio question.  Buffer items- questions unrelated to either of  Nominal scale- simplest level of measurement. the related questions. It groups items together into categories that can  Latent content- the “hidden” meaning behind be named (nominal comes from the Latin word the question. for “name”). Also called the lowest level of  Response set- a picture we want to create of measurement because it does not provide ourselves. A tendency to answer questions magnitude. based on their latent content to create a particular impression of ourselves. Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826  Mail Surveys- include a polite and professional  Probability- refers to the study of the likelihood cover letter (and a stamped, self-addressed of events. envelope). Also, include incentives and track  Probability sampling- the preferred means of mail returns to report. selecting research subjects. It is selecting  Computer and Internet Surveys- the use of the subjects so that the odds of their being in the Internet for conducting surveys has drawbacks study are known or can be calculated. since it could happen that one participant may  Random number table- a table of numbers answer multiple times. generated by a computer so that every number  Telephone Surveys- the most widely used has an equal chance of being selected for each method for conducting survey research. Survey position in the table. technique: random digit dialing. This has  Random selection- any member of the problems such as unresponsive phone numbers population has an equal opportunity to be and difficulty in generalizing conclusions. selected. A common assumption of the statistical  Interviews- the best way to gather high-quality tests used most often to analyze data. survey data. Four Types of Probability Samples Principles for Successful Interview  Simple random sample  rapport (i.e., winning the interviewee’s trust)  Systematic random sample  avoiding judgmental statements  Stratified random sample  knowing how to keep the interview flowing  Cluster sample  Structured interview- the same questions are  Simple random sample- the most basic form of asked in precisely the same way each time. probability sampling. A portion of the whole  Unstructured interviews- free-flowing population is selected in an unbiased way. Ex. 100 students (population)= 1/100 probability  Focus Groups- small groups of people with  Systematic Random Sampling- all population similar characteristics (e.g., all women, all members are known and can be listed university students, all working-class people) unbiasedly; a researcher may select every nth who are brought together by a facilitator, who person from the population. Ex. 100 students guides the group in a discussion of specific (population), 10 students (sample)= 100/10= 10 issues as n. Select every 10th person from the  Reliability- the extent to which the survey is unbiased list. consistent and repeatable.  Stratified Random Sampling- is used when the population is known to contain distinct subgroups. Obtained by randomly sampling Three Qualities of a Reliable Survey from people in each subgroup in the same  Responses to similar questions in the survey proportions as they exist in the population. Ex. should be consistent school is made up of 10% teachers and 90%  The survey should generate very similar students, sample of 100 people from school, responses across different survey-givers randomly select 10 teachers (10%) and 90  A survey should generate similar responses if students (90%) given to the same person more than once.  Cluster Sampling- used when the population of interest is very large. Participants are randomly  Validity- refers to the extent to which a survey selected, but whole groups are selected rather measures the intended topic. than individuals. Ex. 3 million population, select  Sampling- deciding who the subjects will be and clusters like zip code areas, school districts, then selecting them. cities, or counties.  Population- consists of all people, animals, or objects with at least one common characteristic.  Nonprobability sampling- the subjects are not  Sample of subjects- a group subset of the chosen at random. population of interest. Four Nonprobability Samples  Representativeness- how closely the sample  Quota mirrors the larger population precisely, how  Convenience closely the sample responses we observe and  Purposive measure reflect those we would obtain if we  Snowball sampling could sample the entire population.  Quota Sampling- select samples through Two General Sampling Approaches predetermined quotas to reflect the population's  Probability sampling makeup. Ex. A reporter is sent to a university to  Nonprobability sampling interview 40 students, half male, half female, Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 because the student body is roughly half men, half women.  Convenience sampling (accidental sampling)- obtained by using any groups who happen to be available. Considered a weak form of sampling because the researcher exercises no control over the sample's representativeness. Ex. a church choir, a psychology class, a bowling league, or a supermarket checkout line.  Purposive Sampling- nonrandom samples are selected because the individuals reflect a specific purpose of the study. Ex. The purpose of the study was to measure the success of a new training program for employees in two departments (sales and human resources) you select the employees of those departments as your purposive sample to compare.  Snowball Sampling- used predominately for sampling very small, uncommon, or unique populations when researchers do not know who the population members are or how to contact them. The researcher locates people who fit the criterion and asks these people to lead them to additional individuals.  Reporting Samples- include gender, age, and other important demographic characteristics (education level, racial and ethnic heritage, socioeconomic status, etc.) if they could be significant in interpreting the results. Ex. The subjects were 60 undergraduates, 30 men and 30 women at the University of Oregon who responded to an ad in the college newspaper. CHAPTER 5: Alternatives to Experimentation: Correlational and Quasi- Experimental Designs 2 Categories of Nonexperimental Research Methods:  Correlational designs  Quasi-experimental designs Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826  Correlational designs- used to establish researcher cannot manipulate; sometimes used relationships among preexisting behaviors and to select subjects into groups. can be used to predict one set of behaviors from  Positive correlation- if the computed value of r others (such as predicting your college grades is positive and is also called a direct relationship from scores on your entrance exams)  Negative correlation- also called an inverse - can show relationships between sets of relationship preexisting antecedent conditions and  Features of the data: a nonlinear trend, range behavioral effects truncation, and outliers  Quasi- Latin means “seeming like.”  General Linear Model- used on statistical  Quasi-experiments- seem like actual formulas for simple correlations, which assumes experiments but lack manipulation of that the direction of the relationship between X antecedents or random assignment to treatment and Y generally remains the same conditions.  Range truncation- an artificial restriction of the  Confounding- inability to establish cause with range of values of X or Y certainty in research  With a limited range of data, it could show a range truncation of 0 or close to High External Validity and High the Imposition of 0 Units  Outliers can affect the correlation  Correlational designs- low in coefficient because it disturbs the manipulating antecedents and can be general linear trend of the data used with laboratory and field data.  Quasi-experiments 3 Alternative Possibilities Whenever Two Behaviors Are Strongly Correlated Low in Manipulation of Antecedents  Innate aggressiveness determines the  Quasi-experiments vary in the degree of preference for violent TV—not vice versa. More aggressive people could gravitate toward more manipulation of antecedents, but without random violent programs. (Normal Cause and Effect) assignment  Bidirectional causation- refers to the inability to legitimately deduce a cause-and-effect  Imposition of units- restrict, or limit, in the relationship between two events or variables responses subjects can contribute to the solely based on an observed association or collected data. correlation between them. Correlation does not  Correlational study- designed to determine the imply causation.  Third variable problem- a confounding variable correlation, or degree of relationship, between affects both variables to make them seem two traits, behaviors, or events. causally related when they are not. A third agent Variable- any observable behavior, characteristic, or may be causing the two behaviors to appear event that can vary or have different values related. CORRELATIONAL DESIGNS  Coefficient of determination (r 2)- estimates  Correlational study- designed to determine the the variability in scores on one variable that can correlation, or degree of relationship, between be explained by the other variable—an estimate two traits, behaviors, or events. of the strength of the relationship between them.  Simple correlations- relationships between  Cohen (1988)- argued that r^2 > or pairs of scores from each subject equal to 0.25 is considered a strong  Pearson Product Moment Correlation association between variables Coefficient (r)- most commonly used procedure  Linear Regression Analysis- when two for calculating simple correlations behaviors are strongly related, the researcher - three general outcomes are possible: a positive estimates the score on one of the measured relationship, a negative relationship, or no behaviors from a score on the other. relationship  used to predict or visualize a  Scatterplots (scatter graphs or scattergrams)- relationship between two different visual representations of the scores belonging to variables. The stronger the correlation, each subject in the study the better the prediction  Regression lines (lines of best fit)- lines drawn  Regression equation- a formula for a straight on the scatterplots which illustrate the line that best describes the relationship between mathematical equation that best describes the the two variables. It is an equation for a straight linear relationship between the two measured line with a slope and an intercept. scores. -Slope- the direction of the line  Subject variable- characteristics of the subjects - Intercept- the value on the Y, or vertical, axis in an experiment or quasi-experiment that the when X= 0 Formula: Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 Multiple Correlation and Multiple Regression  Multiple correlations (R)- to test the relationship of several predictor variables (X1, X2, X3 …) with a criterion variable (Y)  allows to use the information provided by two or more measured behaviors to predict another measured behavior when we have that information available  Partial correlation- measures the strength of a relationship between two variables while controlling for the effect of one or more other variables. (Measures the correlation between X and Y, while controlling the Z  Multiple regression analysis- used to predict the score on one behavior from scores on the QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS others. Used when more than two related  Quasi-experimental designs- seem like a real behaviors are correlated. Estimating the experiment, but lack one or more essential relationships between a dependent variable and elements, such as manipulation of antecedents one or more independent variables or random assignment to treatment conditions.  Regression equations- determine the weight of This is used to explore the effects of different each predictor to report the weights (called beta treatments on preexisting groups of subjects or weights) in a research report to investigate the same kinds of naturally occurring events, characteristics, and behaviors CAUSAL MODELING that we measure in correlational studies.  drawback of correlational designs is the problem of the direction of cause and effect Different goals  Path analysis  Correlational studies- look for relationships or  Cross-lagged panel designs associations between variables  Quasi-experiments- compare different groups  Path analysis- used when subjects are of subjects, looking for differences between measured on several related behaviors. In path them, or we are looking for changes over time in analysis, the researcher creates models of the same group of subjects possible causal sequences.  uses beta weights to construct path  Natural experiment- a quasi-experiment used models, outlining possible causal to compare people exposed to a naturally sequences for the related behaviors occurring event with a comparison group (usually unexposed people) Beta weights- partial coefficients that indicate the  Quasi-treatment groups- formed based on the unique strength of the relationship between a predictor particular event, characteristic, or behavior and criterion, controlling for the presence of all other whose influence we want to investigate predictors.  Quasi-experimental design- used to estimate  Cross-lagged panel design- used to create the causal impact of an intervention on the causal models target population without random assignment.  uses relationships measured over time  Ex Post Facto Studies (after the fact)- used to suggest the causal path. Measures when the effects of traits, behaviors, or naturally two different variables at two points in occurring events cannot or should not be time manipulated by a researcher  researcher systematically examines the effects of subject characteristics (often called subject variables) without actually manipulating them Ex Post Facto Advantages  it deals with things as they occur  there is no manipulation of the conditions that interest the researcher Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826  Low internal validity because there is the possibility that other differences between the groups of subjects were the actual cause of the effects  High external validity because they focus on naturally occurring events  Random assignment of subjects- to create treatment groups in which any preexisting differences in people are distributed evenly across all the treatment groups  Nonequivalent groups design- the researcher compares the effects of different treatment conditions on preexisting groups of participants  No control over who gets each treatment because a random assignment is not possible  Longitudinal designs- used for studying human (and animal) growth and development  Regression- a way of escaping the reality of a stressful situation by reverting to more childlike patterns of behavior Disadvantage  take place over periods of months, years, or even decades  The same sample must be tracked for a long time, even as participants (and researchers) age, move away, or become deceased  time-consuming and challenging to conduct  Cross-Sectional Studies- analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time  Pretest/Posttest Design- measure people’s level of behavior before and after the event and compare  used to assess the effects of naturally occurring events when a true experiment is not possible  Practice effects (pretest sensitization)- influences on test results when a test is taken more than once  To achieve maximum control over outside influences, you would need some comparison groups: (1) a nonequivalent control group—a group that took both the pretest and posttest but was not exposed to the “treatment,” (2) A group that received the treatment and took only the post-test (3) a posttest-only group  Solomon 4-group design- all four groups are included in the design CHAPTER 6: Formulating the Hypothesis 197-210pp Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 - Falsifiability- the capacity of hypothesis Ways of arriving at hypotheses suitable for to be proven wrong. experimental study:  Parsimonious Statements- parsimony means  Induction the simplest explanation is preferred  Deduction  Fruitful Statements- it leads to new studies  Building on prior research  Serendipity The Inductive Model  Intuition  Inductive model (of formulating a hypothesis)- the process of reasoning from specific cases to  Hypothesis- the thesis, or main idea, of an more general principles experiment. (Nonscientific synonyms are - Taking empirical data and form general speculation, guess, or hunch) explanatory schemes to construct  Nonexperimental designs- used to theories demonstrate relationships between sets of  Theory- set of general principles used to explain behaviors but is not used to infer a cause-and- and predict behavior effect relationship. The Deductive Model  Nonexperimental hypothesis- a statement that  Deductive model (of formulating a hypothesis)- predicts how events, traits, or behaviors are the process of reasoning from general principles related and not about cause and effect. to predict specific instances.  True experimental hypothesis- a statement that predicts the cause-and-effect relationship of variables Three simple propositions (Walster, Walster, and Berscheid)  Individuals try to optimize outcomes (outcomes ¼ rewards minus costs).  When individuals believe they are in an inequitable relationship, they feel distress in direct proportion to the perceived degree of inequity.  The more distress they feel, the harder they work to restore equity. Serendipity And the Windfall Hypothesis  The Three Princes of Serendip- 18th-century tale by Horace Walpole - describes the adventures of three princes who found valuable things they Characteristics of an Experimental Hypothesis were not seeking  Experimental hypothesis- a tentative  Serendipity- finding things that are not being explanation of an event or behavior. sought.  Synthetic statements- statements that can be either true or false. Intuition  Nonsynthetic statements have two categories:  Intuition- knowing without reasoning. - analytic or contradictory - The more we know about a topic, the  Analytic statements- statement that is always better our intuitive hypotheses are likely true and can explain all possible outcomes to be. Ex. “I am pregnant or I am not pregnant - cannot be valid until translated into  Contradictory statements- statements with hypothesis and subjected to empirical elements that are contradicting and always tests false. Ex. “I have a brother and I do not have a  Causal attributions- forming hypotheses about brother” antecedent conditions that affect people’s  Testable Statements behavior - Testable- the means for manipulating Searching The Research Literature antecedent conditions and measuring the Getting Started resulting behavior must exist  Psychological journals- periodicals that - Testability- extent to which truthness or publish individual research reports and falseness of a hypothesis/declaration can be integrative research reviews (up-to-date tested, based on the accessibility of evidence summaries of what is known a topic).  Falsifiable Statements- falsifiable (disprovable)  Meta-analysis- a statistical procedure that use by the research findings data from similar studies to summarize research findings about individual topics. Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 - uses statistical procedures to measure how strong the cause-and-effect relationship between the antecedent conditions and measured behaviors Writing the Report  Introduction- consists of selective review of relevant, recent research. - select articles that are directly related to the research hypothesis - studies cited in Introduction should provide empirical background and guide the reader toward research hypothesis  Discussion- implications of your findings or what the results mean Finding the Articles, You Need  PsycINFO and PsycARTICLES- example webs to look for articles CHAPTER 7: The Basics of Experimentation 216-255pp Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 - dependent variable was affiliation that was  Variables- measurable elements that can vary resulted by the anxiety of the group or take on different values along some dimension Hess (1975)  Experimental hypothesis- expresses the - tested the hypothesis: large pupils make relationship between two kinds of variables people more attractive  Independent variable (IV)- the antecedent - The independent variable in this experiment condition (the treatment) that is manipulated by was pupil size at 2 levels (large and small the experimenter to assess its effect on behavior pupils) - Values are created by the experimenter - The dependent variable is attractiveness and are not affected by anything else  Levels of the independent variable- the - Independent variable- word orientation possible values in every experiment with two treatment conditions: horizontal - The two or more values of the orientation and vertical orientation independent variable manipulated by - Dependent variable- rate of learning the experimenter Ex. a professor gives tests on either blue or yellow paper  Operational definition- specific the meaning of to see if the color of the paper influences the scores. a variable within an experiment. It defines the Blue and yellow represent two levels of the one IV, color. variable in terms of observable operations, procedures, and measurements  Quasi-experiments- researcher selects rather  Experimental operational definitions- the than creates levels of IV by assigning subjects to explanation of the meaning of independent treatment groups on the basis of subject variable variables; defines what was done to create the  Ex post facto study- individuals in treatment various treatment conditions of the experiment groups differ on subject variable because the  Measured operational definitions- The subject variable is the one being tested description of exactly how a variable in an  True experiment- effects of a manipulated experiment is measured independent variable are tested not the effects - (of the dependent variable) describe of different kinds of subjects what procedures we follow to assess the  Dependent variable (dependent measures) impact of different treatment conditions (DV)- behavior that a researcher tries to explain - specify the procedures used to measure in an experiment; the variable that is measured the impact of the independent variable - particular behavior expected to change  “Scores on the Culture Fair Intelligence because of experimental treatment Test”- we identify he test by the name of this. If we are using scores on a standardized test to measure our dependent variable Defining Constructs Operationally  Hypothetical constructs- concepts used to explain unseen processes postulated to explain observable behavior. Ex. hunger, intelligence, or learning - Researchers formulate different definitions for the same construct variable when it is used in different experiments - Labeling the variable “anxiety” would be vague without a precise operational definition because it varies on each person’s experience. Define Anxiety by A Score On A Written Test  Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, or TMAS Some Research Examples (Taylor, 1953)- test includes a variety of items assumed to index different degrees of anxiety, Schachter (1959) such as frequency of nightmares, fear of - If people are anxious, then they will want to spiders, worries about work affiliate, or be, with others. - assume that people who express many - The more anxious group would be more likely concerns are more anxious than those who to want to wait with others express few. Uses predetermined cutoff - anxiety was the independent variable in this scores to determine who is anxious and who experiment as set by Schachter is not. Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 - objective, observable set of measures (the  Interitem reliability- extent to which different subjects’ responses to a fixed set of test parts of a questionnaire, test, or other items) to define anxiety instruments designed to assess the same variable attain consistent results Defining Nonconstruct Variables - The degree to which different items - define what is meant by “light” and “dark” measuring the same variable attain objectively by the use of a photometer or light consistent results. meter. The dependent variable, “crying,” must also be defined. It must be done in a way that 2 Major Approaches to Evaluating Interitem independent observers would agree on its Reliability occurrence (Measure the internal consistency of the test items) Defining Scales of Measurement  Split-half reliability- splitting test into two - Level of measurement- scale used to halves at random and computing a coefficient of measure a variable (nominal, ordinal, reliability between the scores obtained on the interval, and ratio) two halves  Cronbach’s alpha- most widely used method for evaluating interitem reliability because it considers the correlation of each test item with every other item  Validity- the principle of studying the variables that we intend to study to be manipulated or measured  Manipulation check- providing evidence for the validity of an experimental procedure - An assessment to determine whether the independent variable was manipulated successfully Evidence for validity can be established in several ways: EVALUATING OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS - Face validity - Content validity  Reliability- The consistency and dependability - Predictive validity of experimental procedures and measurements - Concurrent validity  Reliability of measurement techniques: - Construct validity - interrater reliability - test-retest reliability  Face Validity- refers to the transparency or - interitem reliability relevance of a test as it appears to test participants  Interrater Reliability- the agreement between - it "looks like" it is going to measure what measurements as different observers take it is supposed to measure measurements of the same responses  Content validity- the degree to which a test or - The degree of agreement among assessment instrument evaluates all aspects of different observers or raters. the topic, construct, or behavior that it is - used in a content analysis when raters designed to measure must score the qualitative content of  Predictive Validity- The degree to which a subjects’ responses measuring instrument presents information allowing prediction of an actual behavior or  Reliability coefficients- (similar to correlations) performance computed that range from 0.0 (only chance - refers to how well the measurement of levels of agreement) to 1.0 (perfect agreement)  Test-Retest Reliability- Consistency between one variable can predict the response of an individual’s scores on the same test taken at another variable two or more different times  Concurrent validity- Extent to which a test - they take the test once, then they take it correlates with another measure that is again (after a reasonable interval) known to be valid - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, - is evaluated by comparing scores on the Third Edition (WAIS-III)- shown measuring instrument with another excellent test-retest reliability known standard for the variable being coefficients; people’s scores do not studied change much from one testing session to another Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826  Construct Validity- The degree to which an influence the responses of the entire operational definition accurately represents the group and effects construct it is intended to manipulate or measure - a previous administration of the same - The degree to which a test measures test or other measuring instrument what it claims to be measuring  Maturation threat- A threat to internal validity produced by internal (physical or psychological) changes in subjects  Raven Progressive Matrices Test, a non-  Testing threat- A threat to internal validity verbal test of intelligence, is one example of a produced by a previous administration of the test that is considered relatively culture-fair same test or other measure  Instrumentation threat- a threat to internal  Convergent validity- refers to how closely a validity produced by changes in the measuring test is related to other tests that measure the instrument itself same (or similar) constructs Ex. rubber ruler that was stretched over time - established if two similar constructs  Statistical regression (also called regression correspond with one another toward the mean)- can occur whenever  Discriminant validity- refers to the extent to subjects are assigned to conditions on the basis which a test is not related to other tests that of extreme scores on a test measure different constructs - A threat to internal validity that can - two dissimilar constructs that are easily occur when subjects are assigned to differentiated conditions on the basis of extreme  Internal validity- the degree to which a scores on a test; upon retest, the scores researcher is able to state a causal relationship of extreme scorers tend to regress between antecedent conditions and the toward the mean even without any subsequent observed behavior treatment - An experiment is internally valid if  Selection- A threat to internal validity when changes in behavior observed across nonrandom procedures are used to assign the treatment conditions of the subjects to conditions or when random experiment were caused by the assignment fails to balance out differences independent variable among subjects across the different conditions  External validity- how well the findings of the of the experiment experiment generalize or apply to situations that  Subject Mortality threat- A threat to internal were not tested directly (for example, real life) validity produced by differences in dropout rates  Extraneous variable- a variable that is not the across the conditions of the experiment focus of an experiment but can affect the  Selection Interactions- family of threats to dependent variable if not controlled internal validity produced when a selection  Confounding- third variable problem threat combines with one or more of the other - threatens internal validity threats to internal validity; when a selection  Confounding variable- variable that is not threat is already present, other threats can affect included in an experiment, yet affects the some experimental groups but not others relationship between the two variables in an experiment 8 Classic Threats to The Internal Validity of Experiments and Quasi-Experiments: - History - Maturation - Testing - Instrumentation - Statistical regression - Selection - Subject mortality - Set of selection interactions  History- A threat to internal validity in which an outside event or occurrence might have produced effects on the dependent variable Planning The Method Section - most often a problem when a whole  Method- the section of a research report where group of individuals is tested together in subjects and experiment are described in detail the same experimental condition of how the research is conducted that it may be - Some outside event that occurred replicated by others before their group testing session could Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826  Method section is divided into labeled subsections: - Participants - Materials - Procedure  Participants- this subsection contains the details of the study participants, the sampling methods, and the sample size  Apparatus or Materials- this subsection contains a description of the specialized equipment used to conduct the experiment  Procedure- this subsection contains the notes about everything you did in your experiment, including any verbal instructions given to subjects. Listing them in chronological order is often the simplest way to present your procedures Downloaded by her cart ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45836826 CHAPTER 8: Solving Problems: Controlling Controlling Demand Characteristics: Single-Blind Extraneous Variable Experiments 256-282pp  Single-blind experiment- an experiment in which subjects do not know which treatment  Physical variables- aspects of the testing they are getting conditions that need to be controlled - disclose some information about the Ex. day of the week, the testing room, the noise, experiment to subjects except for what the distractions treatment they are in  Placebo effect- subject might react based on 3 General Techniques for Controlling Physical what he or she expects the treatment to do that Variables contains no actual medication  Elimination- to make sure that an extraneous Ex. taking anti-anxiety pill, some will report that variable does not affect an experiment they feel better but we will only know the answer Ex. put “do not disturb, experiment in progress” if we compare the results to the control group to eliminate distractions Controlling Demand Characteristics: Cover Stories  Constancy of conditions- keeping all aspects  Cover story- a plausible but false explanation of the treatment conditions as nearly similar as for the procedures used in the study possible if the extraneous variable is cannot be eliminated  Rosenthal effect or (Pygmalion effect)- Ex. using the same room during experiment to experimenters treat subjects differently have a constant environment depending on what they expect from them  Balancing- distributing the effects of an Controlling Experimenter Bias: Double-Blind extraneous variable across the different Experiments treatment conditions of the experiment if  How can we eliminate experimenter effects? elimination and constancy of conditions cannot - be aware of them be done - By following a set of written directions, timing all phases of the experiment, and being as consistent as possible, we can avoid some mistakes  Double-blind experiment- subjects do not know which treatment they are receiving, and the experimenter does not know either PERSONALITY VARIABLES 