Psychology Concepts Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What does the true experimental hypothesis predict?

The optimization of outcomes in relationships.

The tendency to find valuable items unexpectedly.

The cause-and-effect relationship of variables. (correct)

The feelings of distress in inequitable relationships.

Which of the following best defines inequity according to the propositions?

A balanced relationship between two individuals.

An optimal outcome of rewards minus costs.

A perceived imbalance leading to feelings of distress. (correct)

A state of finding valuable things unexpectedly.

What do individuals tend to do when they perceive inequity in a relationship?

They minimize their efforts to change the situation.

They seek serendipitous discoveries.

They work harder to restore equity. (correct)

They maintain a state of optimal outcomes.

Which statement describes synthetic statements?

They can be either true or false. Signup and view all the answers

What is described by the concept of serendipity?

Finding valuable items that are not being sought. Signup and view all the answers

In the context provided, what does intuition refer to?

Understanding without conscious reasoning. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these propositions is part of Walster, Walster, and Berscheid's ideas on relationships?

Efforts to restore equity increase with feelings of distress. Signup and view all the answers

What indicates a true experimental hypothesis?

It is a tentative explanation of an event or behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What type of sampling is considered a weak form due to a lack of control over representativeness?

Convenience sampling Signup and view all the answers

Which sampling method is specifically used to gather nonrandom samples reflecting a particular purpose of the study?

Purposive sampling Signup and view all the answers

In which sampling method does the researcher ask initial respondents to refer additional subjects?

Snowball sampling Signup and view all the answers

How does quota sampling aim to achieve representativeness?

By obtaining samples through predetermined proportions of the population Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of nonprobability sampling?

Cluster sampling Signup and view all the answers

What does representativeness in sampling refer to?

The degree to which sample responses reflect the entire population Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of convenience sampling?

It uses groups that are easy to access without randomization Signup and view all the answers

What type of population is snowball sampling particularly useful for sampling?

Very small or unique populations Signup and view all the answers

What is one technique for controlling physical variables in an experiment?

Elimination Signup and view all the answers

In a single-blind experiment, what do subjects not know?

The specific treatment they are receiving Signup and view all the answers

What is the placebo effect?

Reaction based on expectations of treatment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of an extraneous variable in an experiment?

The day of the week when testing occurs Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about single-blind experiments is correct?

Only the subjects are blind to the treatment allocation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of reactivity in behavioral studies?

The tendency of subjects to change their behavior when aware of an observer. Signup and view all the answers

Which research method involves the researcher becoming part of the group being studied?

Participant-observer studies Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes qualitative research from quantitative research?

Qualitative research emphasizes self-reports and personal narratives. Signup and view all the answers

What is an ordinal scale in measurement?

A rating system that orders items by rank without fixed intervals. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research relies on existing records for new insights?

Archival study Signup and view all the answers

In survey research, what is the primary method of data collection?

Asking people directly about their opinions and behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What does contemporary phenomenology emphasize in research?

The researcher's personal experience and experiential data. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes an interval scale?

It measures with equal distances between values but lacks a true zero. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant advantage of using Ex Post Facto designs?

They examine naturally occurring events without manipulation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a disadvantage of longitudinal studies?

They require tracking the same sample over long periods. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of random assignment in research methods?

To create equivalent groups in treatment conditions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of cross-sectional studies?

To analyze a population at a specific point in time. Signup and view all the answers

Which design would involve using both a pretest and a posttest but without manipulation of the treatment?

Nonequivalent control group design Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential cause of low internal validity in Ex Post Facto designs?

Other differences between subject groups. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Solomon 4-group design allow researchers to do?

Include multiple treatment groups in the analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What is the method called that focuses on reverting to childlike behavior patterns under stress?

Regression Signup and view all the answers

What type of effects can practice sensitization have in pretest/posttest designs?

It obscures the true treatment effect. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'falsifiability' in the context of hypothesis formation?

The hypothesis must be capable of being proven wrong. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Experimental Hypothesis

A tentative explanation of an event or behavior.
It must be a synthetic statement, meaning it can be either true or false.

Equity Theory

Individuals try to optimize outcomes (outcomes = rewards minus costs).
When individuals believe they are in an inequitable relationship, they feel distress in direct proportion to the perceived degree of inequity.
The more distress individuals feel, the harder they work to restore equity.

Serendipity

Often referred to as finding valuable things that are not being sought.
Term derives from 18th-century tale by Horace Walpole, "The Three Princes of Serendip".
The tale describes the adventures of three princes who found valuable things they were not seeking
The term "serendipity" is used to describe the fortunate discovery of something valuable while searching for something else

Intuition

Knowing without reasoning.

Participant-Observer Studies

The researcher becomes part of the group being studied.

Archival Studies

A descriptive research method in which already existing records are reexamined for a new purpose.

Qualitative Research

Relies on words rather than numbers for the data collected.
Focuses on self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts.

Paradigm

The set of attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures that are accepted within a particular discipline at a certain point in time.

Contemporary/Empirical Phenomenology

Relies on the researcher's experiences or experiential data from other sources.
The researcher's self-reflection on experiences relevant to the phenomenon of interest

Survey Research

A way of obtaining information about people’s opinions, attitudes, preferences, and behaviors simply by asking.

Representativeness

How closely the sample mirrors the larger population precisely.
How closely the observed sample responses reflect those we would obtain if we could sample the entire population.

Sampling Approaches

Probability Sampling: each member of the population has a known probability of being selected for the sample
Nonprobability Sampling: the probability of selection is unknown

Nonprobability Samples

Quota Sampling: Select samples through predetermined quotas to reflect the population's makeup
Convenience Sampling (Accidental Sampling): Obtained by using any groups who happen to be available
Purposive Sampling: Nonrandom samples are selected because the individuals reflect a specific purpose of the study
Snowball Sampling: Used predominately for sampling very small, uncommon, or unique populations, when researchers do not know who the population members are or how to contact them,

Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale: Categorical data, no order
Ordinal Scale: Rank ordering of response items
Interval Scale: Measures magnitude or quantitative size using measures with equal intervals between values, with no 0 points.

Ex Post Facto Design

A quasi-experimental research design, where the effects of traits, behaviors, or naturally occurring events cannot or should not be manipulated by a researcher.
The researcher systematically examines the effects of subject characteristics (often called subject variables) without actually manipulating them.

Ex Post Facto Advantages

Deals with things as they occur.
No manipulation of the conditions that interest the researcher.

Ex Post Facto Disadvantage

Low internal validity because there is the possibility that other differences between the groups of subjects were the actual cause of the effects.
High external validity because they focus on naturally occurring events.

Nonequivalent Groups Design

The researcher compares the effects of different treatment conditions on preexisting groups of participants.
No control over who gets each treatment because random assignment is not possible.

Longitudinal Designs

Used for studying human (and animal) growth and development.
Takes place over periods of months, years, or even decades.
The same sample must be tracked for a long time.
Time-consuming and challenging to conduct.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time.

Pretest/Posttest Design

Measures people’s level of behavior before and after the event and compares.
Used to assess the effects of naturally occurring events, when a true experiment is not possible.
Practice effects (pretest sensitization): Influences on test results when a test is taken more than once.

Solomon 4-Group Design

All four groups are included in the design: a control group, a treatment group, a group that received the treatment and took only the post-test, and a posttest-only group.

Ways Of Arriving At A Hypothesis

Formulating your hypothesis based on a theory
Deriving your hypothesis from prior research
Using observations to formulate your hypothesis

Falsifiability

The capacity of hypothesis to be proven wrong.

Controlling Physical Variables

Elimination: Make sure that an extraneous variable does not affect an experiment - e.g., eliminating distractions in a testing room.
Constancy: Keep the extraneous variable the same for all conditions.
Balancing: Ensure that each condition has an equal representation of the extraneous variable levels.
Randomization: Randomly assigns participants to conditions to distribute any extraneous variables evenly across all conditions.

Controlling Demand Characteristics

Demand characteristics: cues that convey to participants the experimenters’ expectations.
Deception: Misleading participants about the purpose of the experiment, or the conditions of the study.
Placebo: Non-medicinal substance used to control for expectations.
Single-Blind Experiment: Subjects do not know which treatment they are getting.

Single-Blind Experiment

An experiment in which subjects do not know which treatment they are getting.
Disclose some information about the experiment to subjects, except for what treatment they are in.

Placebo Effect

Subjects might react based on what he or she expects the treatment to do.
The treatment contains no actual medication.

Sources Of Extraneous Variables

Participant Variables: Individual differences among participants, for example; age, gender, intelligence, personality, motivation.
Experimenter Variables: Unintended influences of the experimenter on the outcome of the experiment.

Controlling Experimenter Variables

Standardization: Using the same procedures for all participants, thus minimizing variation in how each participant is treated.
Automation: Using machines or computers to present stimuli and record responses, removing the experimenter from the process.

Controlling Participant Variables

Matching: Matching participants on one or more participant variables, for example; age, gender, IQ, personality, or motivation.
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to conditions randomly ensuring that every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition which, in turn, helps to control for participant variables.

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Description

Test your understanding of key psychological theories including experimental hypothesis, equity theory, serendipity, and intuition. This quiz also explores the role of participant-observer studies in psychology. Challenge yourself and see how well you grasp these essential concepts!