Foundation for Assessment: What to Assess PDF

Topic  Foundation for Assessment: 2 What to Assess LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Justify the behaviours that are to be measured to present a holistic...

Topic  Foundation for Assessment: 2 What to Assess LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Justify the behaviours that are to be measured to present a holistic assessment of students; 2. Describe the various types of cognitive learning outcomes to be assessed; 3. Describe the various types of affective learning outcomes to be assessed; and 4. Describe the various types of psychomotor learning outcomes to be assessed.  INTRODUCTION If you were to ask a teacher, what should be assessed in the classroom, the immediate response would be, of course, the facts and concepts taught. They are the facts and concepts found in science, history, geography, language, arts, religious education and other similar subjects. However, the Malaysian Philosophy of Education states that education should aim towards the holistic development of the individual. Hence, it is only logical that the assessment system should also seek to assess more than the acquisition of the facts and concepts of a subject area. What about assessment of physical and motor abilities? What about socioemotional behaviours such as attitudes, interests, personality and so forth? Do they not contribute to the holistic person? In this topic, you will learn the types of learning outcomes that need to be assessed in a curriculum. The topic will conclude with a brief explanation on how to plan a table of specification for a classroom test. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  21 2.1 IDENTIFYING WHAT TO ASSESS When educators are asked what should be assessed in the classroom, the majority would refer to evaluating the acquisition of the facts, concepts, principles, procedures and methods of a subject area. You might find a minority of educators who insist that skills acquired by learners should also be assessed especially in subjects such as physical education, art, drama, music, technical drawing, carpentry, automobile engineering and so forth. Even fewer educators would propose that the socioemotional behaviour of learners should also be assessed. National Philosophy of Malaysian Education Education in Malaysia is an ongoing effort towards further developing the potentials of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonic, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and the nation at large. (Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia, 1988) The National Philosophy of Malaysian Education has important implications for assessment. Theoretically, a comprehensive assessment system should seek to provide information on the extent to which the National Philosophy of Education has achieved its goal. In other words, the assessment system should seek to determine: (a) Whether our schools have developed „the potentials of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner‰; (b) Whether our students are „intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced‰; (c) Whether our students are „knowledgeable and competent‰ and „possess high moral standards‰; (d) Whether our students have a „high level of personal well-being‰; and (e) Whether students are equipped with the abilities and attitudes that will enable them „to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and the nation at large‰. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 22  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS On the contrary, in actual practice the assessment tends to overemphasise on intellectual competence which translates into the measurement of cognitive learning outcomes of specific subject areas. The other aspects of the holistic individual are given minimal attention because of various reasons. For example, how does a teacher assess the spiritual or emotional growth and development? These are constructs that are difficult to evaluate and extremely subjective. Hence, it is no surprise that assessment of cognitive outcomes has remained the focus of most assessment systems all over the world because it is relatively easier to observe and measure. However, in this topic we will make an attempt to present a more „holistic‰ assessment of learning, focusing on three main types of human behaviour. These are behaviours that psychometricians and psychologists have attempted to assess and are closely aligned to realising the goals of the National Philosophy of Malaysian Education. 2.2 THREE TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES Few people will dispute that the purpose of schooling is the development of the holistic person. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, a group of psychologists and psychometricians proposed that schools should seek to assess three domains of learning outcomes (refer to Figure 2.1): (a) Cognitive learning outcomes (knowledge or mental skills); (b) Affective learning outcomes (feelings or emotions); and (c) Psychomotor learning outcomes (manual or physical skills). Figure 2.1: Holistic assessment of learners Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  23 Domains can be thought of as categories. Educators often refer to these three domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills and Attitude). Each domain consists of subdivisions, starting from the simplest behaviour to the most complex, thus forming taxonomy of learning outcomes. Each of the taxonomy of learning behaviour can be thought of as „the goals of the schooling process.‰ That means that after schooling, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes. However, the levels of each division outlined are not absolutes. While there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational world, these three taxonomies are easily understood and are probably the most widely used today. To assess the three domains, one has to identify and isolate the behaviour that represents these domains. When we assess we evaluate some aspects of the learnerÊs behaviour, for example, his ability to compare, explain, analyse, solve, draw, pronounce, feel, reflect and so forth. The term „behaviour‰ is used broadly to include the learnerÊs ability to think (cognitive), feel (affective) and perform a skill (psychomotor). For example, you have just taught about „The Rainforest of Malaysia‰ and you would like to assess your students in their: (a) Thinking ă You might ask them to list the characteristics of the Malaysian rainforest and compare it with the coniferous forest of Canada; (b) Feelings (emotions, attitudes) ă You could ask them to design an exhibition on how students could contribute towards conserving the rainforest; and (c) Skill ă You could ask them to prepare satellite maps about the changing Malaysian rainforest by accessing websites from the Internet. ACTIVITY 2.1 Refer to Figure 2.1. To what extent are affective and psychomotor behaviours assessed in your institution? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 24  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS 2.3 ASSESSING COGNITIVE LEARNING OUTCOMES When we evaluate or assess a human being, we are assessing or evaluating the behaviour of a person. This might be a bit confusing to some people. Are we not assessing a personÊs understanding of the facts, concepts and principles of a subject area? Every subject, whether it is history, science, geography, economics, or mathematics, has its unique repertoire of facts, concepts, principles, generalisations, theories, laws, procedures and methods that are transmitted to learners (illustrated in Figure 2.2). Figure 2.2: Contents of a subject assessed When we assess we do not assess the learnerÊs store of the facts, concepts or principles of a subject but rather what the learner is able to do with the facts, concepts or principles of a subject area. For example, we evaluate the learnerÊs ability to compare facts, explain the concept, analyse a generalisation (or statement) or solve a problem based on a given principle. In other words, we assess the understanding or mastery of a body of knowledge based upon what the learner is able to do with the contents of the subject. Let us look at two mechanisms used to measure or assess cognitive learning, namely BloomÊs Taxonomy and The Helpful Hundred. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  25 (a) BloomÊs Taxonomy In 1956, Benjamin Bloom led a group of educational psychologists to develop a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour which are important to learning. They found that over 95 per cent of the test questions which learners encountered required them to think only at the lowest possible level, that is the recall of information. Bloom and his colleagues developed a widely accepted taxonomy (method of classification on differing levels) for cognitive objectives. This is referred to as BloomÊs Taxonomy (refer to Figure 2.3). There are six levels in BloomÊs classification with the lowest level termed knowledge. The knowledge level is followed by five increasingly difficult levels of mental abilities: comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Figure 2.3: BloomÊs taxonomy of cognitive learning outcomes Now, read further to find out what each level constitutes. (i) Knowledge: The behaviours at the knowledge level require learners to recall specific information. The knowledge level is the lowest cognitive level. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the knowledge level include the ability to list, define, name, state, recall, match, identify, tell, label, underline, locate, recognise, select and so forth. For example, learnersÊ ability to recite the factors leading to the World War II, quote formula for density and force, tell laboratory safety rules. (ii) Comprehension: The behaviours at the comprehension level which is a higher level of mental ability than the knowledge level require the understanding of the meaning of concepts and principles, translation of words and phrases into oneÊs own words, interpolation which involves filling in missing information, interpretation which involves inferring and going beyond the given information. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the comprehension level are explain, distinguish, infer, interpret, convert, generalise, defend, estimate, extend, paraphrase, retell using own words, predict, rewrite, summarise, translate and so forth. For example, learners are able to Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 26  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS rewrite NewtonÊs three laws of motion, explain in oneÊs own words the steps for performing a complex task and translate an equation into a computer spreadsheet. (iii) Application: The behaviours at the application level require learners to apply a rule or principle learned in the classroom into novel or new situations in the workplace or unprompted use of an abstraction. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the application level are apply, change, compute, demonstrate, discover, manipulate, modify, give an example, operate, predict, prepare, produce, relate, show, solve, use and so forth. For example, learners are able to use the formula for projectile motion to calculate the maximum distance a long jumper jumps and apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. (iv) Analysis: The behaviours at the analysis level require learners to identify component parts and describe their relationship, separate material or concepts into component parts so that its organisational structure may be understood and distinguish between facts and inferences. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the analysis level are analyse, break down, compare, contrast, diagram, deconstruct, examine, dissect, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, identify, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, select, separate and so forth. For example, learners are able to troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction, recognise logical fallacies in reasoning, analyse information from a company and determine needs for training. (v) Synthesis: The behaviours at the synthesis level require learners to build a structure or pattern from diverse elements and put parts together to form a whole with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the synthesis level are categorise, combine, compile, compose, create, devise, design, explain, generate, modify, organise, plan, rearrange, reconstruct, relate, reorganise, find an unusual way, formulate, revise, rewrite, summarise, tell, write and so forth. For example, learners are able to write a creative short story, design a method to perform a specific task, integrate ideas from several sources to solve a problem, devise a new plan of action to improve the outcome. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  27 (vi) Evaluation: The behaviours at the evaluation level require learners to make judgment about materials and methods, and the value of ideas or materials. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the evaluation level are appraise, compare, conclude, contrast, criticise, critique, defend, describe, rank, give your own opinion, discriminate, evaluate, explain, interpret, value, justify, relate, summarise, support and so forth. For example, learners are able to evaluate and decide on the most effective solution to a problem, justify the choice of a new procedure or course of action. (b) The Helpful Hundred Heinich, Molenda, Russell and Smaldino (2001) suggested 100 verbs that highlight performance or behaviours that are observable and measurable. This is not to say that these 100 verbs are the only ones but they definitely are a great reference for educators. Table 2.1 displays the verbs that would be appropriate to use when you are writing instructional objectives in each level of BloomÊs Taxonomy. Table 2.1: The Helpful Hundred add compute drill label predict state alphabetise conduct estimate locate prepare subtract analyse construct evaluate make present suggest apply contrast explain manipulate produce swing arrange convert extrapolate match pronounce tabulate assemble correct fit measure read throw attend cut generate modify reconstruct time bisect deduce graph multiply reduce translate build defend grasp name remove type cave define grind operate revise underline categorise demonstrate hit order select verbalise choose derive hold organise sketch verify classify describe identify outline ski weave colour design illustrate pack solve weigh compare designate indicate paint sort write complete diagram install plot specify compose distinguish kick position square Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 28  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS In 2001, Krathwohl and Anderson modified the original BloomÊs Taxonomy (1956). They identified and isolated the following list of behaviours that an assessment system should address (refer to Table 2.2). Table 2.2: Revised Version of BloomÊs Taxonomy Category and Cognitive Process Alternative Names 1. Remembering Ć Recognising Ć Identifying Ć Recalling Ć Retrieving 2. Understanding Ć Interpreting Ć Clarifying, paraphrasing, representing, Ć Exemplifying translating Ć Classifying Ć Illustrating, instantiating Ć Summarising Ć Categorising, subsuming Ć Inferring Ć Abstracting, generalising Ć Comparing Ć Concluding, extrapolating, interpolating, predicting Ć Explaining Ć Contrasting, mapping, matching Ć Constructing models 3. Applying Ć Executing Ć Carrying out Ć Implementing Ć Using 4. Analysing Ć Differentiating Ć Discriminating, distinguishing, focusing, Ć Organising selecting Ć Attributing Ć Finding coherence, integrating, outlining, structuring Ć Deconstructing 5. Evaluating Ć Checking Ć Coordinating, detecting, monitoring, testing Ć Criticising Ć Judging 6. Creating Ć Generating Ć Hypothesising Ć Planning Ć Designing Ć Producing Ć Constructing Source: Krathwohl & Anderson (2001) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  29 Note that the sequencing of some of the levels has been rearranged and renamed. The first two original levels of „knowledge‰ and „comprehension‰ were replaced with „remembering‰ and „understanding‰ respectively. The „synthesis‰ level was renamed with the term „creating‰. Note that in the original taxonomy the sequence was „synthesis‰ followed by „evaluate‰. In the modified taxonomy, the sequence was rearranged to „evaluating‰ followed by „creating‰. As you can see, the primary differences between the original and the revised taxonomy are not in the listings or rewordings from nouns to verbs, or in the renaming of some of the components, or even in the re-positioning of the last two categories. The major differences lie in the more useful and comprehensive additions of how the taxonomy intersects and acts upon different types and levels of knowledge ă factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. (a) Factual knowledge refers to essential facts, terminologies, details or elements that learners must know or be familiar with in order to understand a discipline or solve a problem with it; (b) Conceptual knowledge is knowledge of classifications, principles, generalisations, theories, models or structures pertinent to a particular disciplinary area; (c) Procedural knowledge refers to information or knowledge that helps learners do something specific to a discipline, subject or area of study. It also refers to the methods of inquiry, very specific or finite skills, algorithms, techniques and particular methodologies; and (d) Metacognition is simply thinking about oneÊs thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor and assess oneÊs understanding and performance. Activities such as planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension and evaluating progress toward the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature. BloomÊs aim was to promote higher forms of thinking in education such as analysing, creating and evaluating rather than just teaching learners to remember facts (rote learning). Higher-order thinking (HOT) takes thinking to higher levels other than restating the facts and requires learners to do something with the facts such as understand them, infer from them, connect them to other facts and concepts, categorise them, manipulate them, put them together in new or novel ways, and apply them as we seek new solutions to new problems. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 30  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS SELF-CHECK 2.1 1. Explain the differences between analysis and synthesis according to BloomÊs Taxonomy. 2. How is the revised version of BloomÊs Taxonomy different from the original version? ACTIVITY 2.2 1. Do you agree that BloomÊs Taxonomy is a hierarchy of cognitive abilities? Justify. 2. You need to be able to „analyse‰ before being able to „evaluate‰. Comment. 3. Using The Helpful Hundred, list the learning outcomes appropriate for the subject area you are teaching. Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 2.4 ASSESSING AFFECTIVE OUTCOMES Affective characteristics involve the feelings or emotions of a person. Attitudes, values, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, interests, aspirations and anxiety are all examples of affective characteristics. Unfortunately, affective outcomes have not been a central part of our education system even though they are arguably as important as, or even more important than, any cognitive or psychomotor domain of learning outcomes targeted by schools. Some possible reasons for the lack of emphasis on affective outcomes include: (a) The belief that the development of appropriate feelings is the task of the family and religion. (b) The belief that appropriate feelings develop automatically from knowledge and experience with content and do not require any special pedagogical attention. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  31 (c) Attitudinal and value-oriented instructions are difficult to develop and assess because: (i) Affective goals are intangible; (ii) Affective outcomes cannot be attained in the typical periods of instruction offered in schools; (iii) Affective characteristics are considered to be private rather than public matters; and (iv) There are no sound methods to gather information about affective characteristics. However, affective goals are no more intangible than cognitive ones. Some have claimed that affective behaviours can be developed automatically when specific knowledge are taught while others argue that affective behaviours have to be explicitly developed in schools. Affective goals do not necessarily take longer to achieve in the classroom than cognitive goals. All that is required is to state a goal more concretely and behaviourally-oriented so that it can be assessed and monitored. There is also the belief that affective characteristics are private and should not be made public. While people value their privacy, the public also has the right to information. If the information gathered is needed to make a decision, then the gathering of such information is not generally considered an invasion of privacy. For example, if an assessment is used to determine whether a learner needs further attention such as special education, then gathering such information is not an invasion of privacy. On the other hand, if the information being sought-after is not relevant to the stated purpose, then gathering of such information is likely to be an invasion of privacy. Similarly, information about affective characteristics can be used for good or bad. For example, if a mathematics teacher discovers a learner has a negative attitude towards mathematics and ridicules that learner in front of the class, then the information has been misused. However, if the teacher uses the information to change his instructional methods so as to help the learner develop a more positive attitude towards mathematics, then the information has been used wisely. Krathwohl, Bloom and Bertram and their colleagues developed the affective domain in 1973 which deals with things emotionally such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivation and attitudes. The five major categories which listed the simplest behaviour to the most complex behaviour are receiving, responding, valuing, organisation and characterisation (refer to Figure 2.4). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 32  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS Figure 2.4: Krathwohl, Bloom and BertramÊs taxonomy of affective learning outcomes Let us read on to find about more about the taxonomy. (a) Receiving The behaviours at the receiving level require the learner to be aware of, willing to hear and focus his or her attention. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the receiving level are ask, choose, describe, follow, give, hold, locate, name, point to, reply and so forth. For example, the learner: (i) Listens to others with respect; and (ii) Listens for and remembers the names of other learners. (b) Responding The behaviours at the responding level require the learner to be an active participant, attend to and react to a particular phenomenon, be willing to respond and gain satisfaction in responding (motivation). Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the responding level are answer, assist, aid, comply with, conform, discuss, greet, help, label, perform, practise, present, read, recite, report, select, tell, and write. For example, the learner: (i) Participates in class discussion; (ii) Gives a presentation; and (iii) Questions new ideals, concepts and models in order to fully understand them. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  33 (c) Valuing This level relates to the worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon or behaviour. It ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalisation of a set of specified values while clues to these values are expressed in the learner as overt behaviours and are often identifiable. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the valuing level are demonstrate, differentiate, explain, follow, form, initiate, invite, join, justify, propose, read, report, select, share, study and work. For example, the learner: (i) Demonstrates belief in the democratic process; (ii) Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity); (iii) Shows the ability to solve problems; (iv) Proposes a plan to social improvement; and (v) Follows through with commitment. (d) Organisation At this level, a person organises values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them and creating a unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating and synthesising values. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the level of organisation are adhere to, alter, arrange, combine, compare, complete, defend, explain, formulate, generalise, identify, integrate, modify, order, organise, prepare, relate and synthesise. For example, the learner: (i) Recognises the need for balance between freedom and responsible behaviour; (ii) Accepts responsibility for his behaviour; (iii) Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems; (iv) Accepts professional ethical standards; (v) Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests and beliefs; and (vi) Prioritises time effectively to meet the needs of the organisation, family and self. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 34  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS (e) Characterisation At this level, a personÊs value system controls his behaviour. The behaviour is pervasive, consistent, predictable and most importantly, characterises the learner. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at this level are act, discriminate, display, influence, listen, modify, perform, practise, propose, qualify, question, revise, serve, solve and verify. For example, the learner: (i) Shows self-reliance when working independently; (ii) Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork); (iii) Uses an objective approach in problem-solving; (iv) Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis; (v) Revises judgment and changes behaviour in light of new evidence; and (vi) Values people for what they are, not how they look. Table 2.3 shows how the affective taxonomy may be applied to a value such as honesty. It traces the development of an affective attribute such as honesty from the „receiving‰ level up to the „characterisation‰ level where the value becomes a part of the individualÊs character. Table 2.3: An Affective Taxonomy for Honesty Individual Character Explanation Receiving (Attending) Aware that certain things are honest or dishonest Responding Saying that honesty is better and behaving accordingly Valuing Consistently (but not always) telling the truth Organisation Being honest in various situations Characterisation by a value or Honest in most situations, expects others to be honest value complex and interacts with others with all honesty SELF-CHECK 2.2 Explain the differences between characterisation and valuing according to the affective taxonomy of learning outcomes. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  35 ACTIVITY 2.3 1. The Role of Affect in Education „Some say schools should only be concerned with content.‰ „It is impossible to teach content without teaching affect as well.‰ „To what extent, if at all, should we be concerned with the assessment of affective outcomes?‰ Discuss the three statements in the context of the Malaysian education system. 2. Select any two values from the list of 16 universal values and design an affective taxonomy for each value as shown in Table 2.3. 3. „A student is operating at the responding level.‰ What does the statement mean? Explain. Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 2.5 ASSESSING PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING OUTCOMES The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures or techniques in execution. The seven major categories listed from the simplest behaviour to the most complex are shown in Figure 2.5. Figure 2.5: The taxonomy of psychomotor learning outcomes Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 36  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS Let us read further to find out more about psychomotor learning. (a) Perception Perception is the ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation through cue selection to translation. Examples of verbs describing these types of behaviours are choose, describe, detect, differentiate, distinguish, identify, isolate, relate and select. For example, the learner: (i) Detects non-verbal communication cues from the coach; (ii) Estimates where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball; (iii) Adjusts heat of the stove to the correct temperature through smell and taste of food; and (iv) Adjusts the height of the ladder in relation to the point on the wall. (b) Set It includes mental, physical and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a personÊs response to different situations (sometimes called mindset). Examples of verbs describing „set‰ are begin, display, explain, move, proceed, react, show, state and volunteer. For example, the learner: (i) Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process; (ii) Recognises his abilities and limitations; and (iii) Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation).  Note: This subdivision of the psychomotor domain is closely related with the „responding‰ subdivision of the affective domain. (c) Guided Response Guided response refers to the early stages of learning a complex skill which includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing. Examples of verbs describing „guided response‰ are copy, trace, follow, react, reproduce and respond. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  37 For example, the learner: (i) Performs a mathematical equation; (ii) Follows instructions when building a model of a kampung house; and (iii) Responds to hand signals of the coach while learning gymnastics. (d) Mechanism This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. Examples of verbs describing „mechanism‰ include assemble, calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, fasten, fix, grind, heat, manipulate, measure, mend, mix and organise. For example, the learner: (i) Uses a computer; (ii) Repairs a leaking tap; (iii) Fixes a three-pin electrical plug; and (iv) Rides a motorbike. (e) Complex Overt Response Complex overt response involves the skilful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by quick, accurate and highly coordinated performance requiring minimum energy. This category includes performing without hesitation and automatic performance. For example, tennis players such as Maria Sharapova and Serena Williams often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball. Similarly for golf players when they immediately realised that they have hit a bad shot. This is because they can tell by the feel of the act and the result that will follow. Examples of verbs describing „complex overt responses‰ are assemble, build, calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, fasten, fix, grind, heat, manipulate, measure, mend, mix, organise and sketch. For example, the learner: (i) Manoeuvres a car into a tight parallel parking spot; (ii) Operates a computer quickly and accurately; and (iii) Displays competence while playing the piano. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 38  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  Note that many of the verbs are the same as „mechanism‰, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better and more accurate. (f) Adaptation Skills are well-developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements. Examples of verbs describing „adaptation‰ are adapt, alter, change, rearrange, reorganise, revise and vary. For example, the learner: (i) Responds effectively to unexpected experiences; (ii) Modifies instructions to meet the needs of learners; (iii) Performs a task with a machine that it was originally not designed to do (assuming that the machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task). (g) Origination Origination is about creating new movements or patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasise creativity based upon highly developed skills. Examples of verbs describing „origination‰ are arrange, build, combine, compose, construct, create, design, initiate, make and originate. For example, the learner: (i) Constructs a new theory; (ii) Develops a new technique for goalkeeping; and (iii) Creates a new gymnastic routine. SELF-CHECK 2.3 Explain the differences between adaptation and guided response according the psychomotor taxonomy of learning outcomes Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  39 ACTIVITY 2.4 „A student is operating at the origination level.‰ What does the statement mean? Explain. Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. As a guide, Table 2.5 shows the allotment of time for each type of question. Table 2.5: Allotment of Time for Each Type of Question Task Approximate Time Per Item True-False 20ă30 seconds Multiple-choice (factual) 40ă60 seconds Multiple-choice (complex) 70ă90 seconds Matching (5 stems or 6 choices) 2ă4 minutes Short answers 2ă4 minutes Multiple-choice (with calculations) 2ă5 minutes Word problems (simple math) 5ă10 minutes Short essays 15ă20 minutes Data analysis or graphing 15ă25 minutes Extended essays 35ă50 minutes Once your questions are developed, make sure that you include clear instructions for the learners. For the objective items, specify that they should select one answer for each item and indicate the point value of each question, especially if you are allocating different weightage to different sections of the test. For essay items, indicate the point value and suggested time to be spent on the item. We will discuss different types of questions in more detail in Topics 3 and 4. If you are teaching a large class with close seating arrangements and are giving an objective test, you may want to consider administering several versions of your test to minimise the opportunities for cheating. This is done by creating versions of your test with different numberings of the items. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 40  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  Assessment of cognitive outcomes has remained the focus of most assessment systems all over the world because it is relatively easier to observe and measure.  Each domain of learning consists of subdivisions, starting from the simplest behaviour to the most complex thus forming taxonomy of learning outcomes.  When we evaluate or assess a human being, we are assessing or evaluating the behaviour of a person.  Every subject area has is unique repertoire of facts, concepts, principles, generalisations, theories, laws, procedures and methods that are transmitted to learners.  There are six levels in BloomÊs taxonomy of cognitive learning outcomes with the lowest level termed knowledge followed by five increasingly difficult levels of mental abilities, which are comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.  The six levels in the revised version of BloomÊs taxonomy are remembering, understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating and creating.  Affective characteristics involve the feelings or emotions of a person. Attitudes, values, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, interests, aspirations and anxieties are examples of affective characteristics.  The five major categories of the affective domain from the simplest behaviour to the most complex behaviour are receiving, responding, valuing, organisation and characterisation.  The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.  The seven major categories of the psychomotor domain from the simplest behaviour to the most complex are perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation and origination. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  41 Affective learning outcomes Holistic assessment BloomÊs taxonomy Psychomotor learning outcome Cognitive learning outcomes The Helpful Hundred Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)