Pharmacognosy: Scope and History PDF

CHAPTER 1 Pharmacognosy: Scope and History Introduction 5 Crude Drug: Classification 13 Alphabetical Classification 13 Scope 5 Morphological Classification History 6...

CHAPTER 1 Pharmacognosy: Scope and History Introduction 5 Crude Drug: Classification 13 Alphabetical Classification 13 Scope 5 Morphological Classification History 6 (Organised and Un-organised Alternative Systems of Medicine 7 Crude Drugs) 13 Ayurveda System 7 Taxonomic Classification 14 Biological or Pharmacological Siddha System 8 Classification 14 Unani System 9 Chemical Classification 14 Homeopathy System 10 Chemotaxonomic Classification 14 Chinese System 10 Serotaxonomical Classification 15 Kampo System 11 Sources of Crude Drug 16 Aromatherapy System 12 Naturopathy 12 Yoga 12 4 Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: A Comprehensive Approach  Pharmacognosy: Scope and History 5 Introduction This knowledge used to improve and The term ‘pharmacognosy’ (combination of modernise cultivation methods of two Greek words i.e., pharmakon means drug medicinal and aromatic plants to fulfill and gnosis means knowledge) means demand from quality raw material to “acquiring knowledge of drugs” was coined genetic transformations in plants to get in 1815 by C. A. Seydler, German medical desired characters. student in his thesis title “Analyetica World Health Organization (WHO) has Pharmacognostica”. Pharmacognosy is estimated that 80% of world population defined as “scientific and systematic study of depends on herbal medicines for their structural, physical, chemical and biological primary health care. Some of the very characters of crude drugs along with history, famous crude drugs are senna as a method of cultivation, collection and preparation purgative, digitalis as a cardiotonic and for the market”. rauwolfia as an antihypertensive drug. The American Society of Pharmacognosy Pharmacognosy explains thorough defines pharmacognosy as “the study of the indepth knowledge of the history, physical, chemical, biochemical and biological cultivation, collection, quality control, properties of drugs, drug substances or potential transport, storage and even economic drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well impact of all these crude drugs. as the search for new drugs from natural sources”. It is also called as study of crude drugs. Pharmacognosy is vital link between pharmacology and medicinal chemistry Thus pharmacognostical studies of plant because it enables isolation of purified drugs involves study of synonyms, vernacular names, biological sources, natural drugs, converts into medicine and distribution, morphology, histology, evaluates its therapeutic effects. chemistry, qualitative test, various Pharmacognosy links pharmaceuticals physicochemical tests, pharmacological and basic science as well as ayurvedic actions along with commercial varieties, and allopathic system of medicines to each substitutes, adulterants and any other quality other. control parameters of the drugs. Pharmacognosy helped to improve plant Scope chemistry (phytochemistry) significantly with the knowledge of extraction. Variety The pharmacognosy has played an of chemical constituents that are important role in the transformation of various basic science subjects. accumulated and synthesized by plants Pharmacognosy has a vital contribution to have revolutionized the process of natural the advancement of natural and physical drug discovery. science due to advances in technologies of Novel techniques like “Bioassay Guided cultivation, purification, identification, Fractionation” helps in the isolation of characterization of natural drugs. phytochemicals based on therapeutic Pharmacognosy has enabled to establish potency. This has led to specific use of a sound knowledge of the vegetable drugs medicinal constituents or plant parts and under botany and animal drugs under its utilization in disease treatment. zoology through taxonomy, breeding, Recently started studies on natural drug- pathology and genetics concepts. drug, drug-food interactions are avoiding 6 Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: A Comprehensive Approach the untoward effects of severe interactions traditional dosage forms is opening doors and hence helping in obtaining the to “Industrial Pharmacognosy”. optimal therapeutic outcomes especially Due to most recent technologies and for classes like blood thinners, protease innovative chemical concepts, many new inhibitors, cardiac glycosides, immuno drugs or drug candidates still originated suppressants. from natural products or derivatives In the pharmaceutical industry, various thereof. Even in this era of drugs of botanical origin are used in drug nanotechnology, natural drugs are manufacturing process. Knowledge of important part of primary health care pharmacognosy surely helps as a which is giving pharmacognosy professionals new possibilities to exploit research tools in the new drug /dosage the huge diversity designed and form development. generated by nature. Recent guidelines for quality control of Due to rapid growth in demand and crude drugs are to assure the identity, popularity of natural products, research purity and consistency of drug has been directed towards patentable substances, efficacy to determine the drug discovery and development in the therapeutic responses, indications, field of pharmacognosy. clinical aspects and pharmacological There is a shortage of established effects, safety to avoid untoward toxic scientists engaged in pharmacognosy reactions, interactions and research, which tends to involve subject contraindications. matter beyond the conventional scientist’s However, this subject is as old as knowledge base. Hence, actual secret of pharmacy and humankind evolution; opportunities in pharmacognosy research recently it is evolved as a multi- is that only the tip of the iceberg seems to disciplinary subject focusing many have been discovered yet. modern disciplines like ethonobotany, ethonopharmcology, phytotherapy, History phytochemistry, chemotaxonomy, History of pharmacognosy is as old as biotechnology, clinical trials, herbal drug mankind. Human being came to know interaction and even novel drug delivery medicines from nature itself. Table 1.1 is systems like phytosomes rather only explaining various historical developments botanical and taxonomical descriptions. which together contributed to the progress Recent advances in extraction methods, of Pharmacognosy. Various traditional analytical hyphenated techniques, screening methods continues to hasten systems of medicines from different corners major changes in this subject. of world also played vital role in development Modernization of conventional and/or of pharmacognosy. Table 1.1 Scientists and their work in the development of Pharmacognosy Name Profession Work Period Hippocrates Greek scientist Studied human anatomy 460-360 B.C Father of Medicine and Physiology Aristotle Greek Animal kingdom 384-322 B.C. Father of Biology Philosopher Theophrastus Greek Philosopher Plant kingdom 370-287 B.C. Father of Botany Table 1.1 Contd...  Pharmacognosy: Scope and History 7 Name Profession Work Period Pedanius Dioscorides Greek physician De Materia Medica book is 78 A.D. compilation of several plants Gaius Plinius Secundus Roman naturalist Encyclopedic work entitled 25-70 A.D. or Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus Greek pharmacist Galenical Pharmacy 131–200 A.D. or Galen Carl Linnaeus Swedish botanist Binomial classification 1753 Father of Taxonomy C A Seydler German scientist Coined word Pharmacognosy 1815 Sir Joseph D. Hooker British botanist Plant nomenclature 1817-1911 George Bentham English botanist Plant nomenclature 1800-1884 Charles Darwin English naturalist Evolutionary theory 1809-1882 Friedrich Sertürner German chemist Isolated first alkaloid 1804 morphine from opium Mikhail Tsvet Russian scientist Separation of plant pigments 1900 by chromatography Alternative Systems of Medicine ¾ Tridosha: (Kapha- lubrication, Vata- respiration and Pitta-metabolism), Ayurveda System ¾ Panchshil: (Rasa : Therapeutically active It is about 5000 year old system of medicine substances, Guna : Quality Virya : Active native to India. It is holistic system of medicine which considers whole body while principle and potency, Vipaka : The end treating disease and not just a diseased part product of digestion, Prabhava : Actual of body. Ayurveda has thousands year’s effect of drug on body), evidence based history so it can be just ¾ Panch Mahabhuta: (earth, water, sky, fire complete system rather alternative system or and air), complementary system. Ayurveda is a ¾ Saptadhatu [(Rasa (Plasma), raktam Sanskrit word which means (Ayur-life and (Blood), mamsa (Muscles), meda (Fat), veda – to gain knowledge or science) science asthi (Bone), majja (Bone marrow and of life. Ayurveda deals with different types nerves), shukra (Reproductive fluid or of plants, minerals and animal products. Semen)] and triguna i.e. Satva (good), raja Charak samhita by Charak includes the principle components or theory of Ayurveda. (aggressive), toma (dullness) Sushrut samhita edited by Sushrut is about Diagnosis: When non-equilibrium between the surgical treatments in Ayurveda. any of above principles causes to person Theory and principles: Ayurveda involves suffers from diseases. Ayurveda cures the following fundamental principles: cause of disease by considering to mental, physical, social and spiritual welfare of ¾ Triguna: Satva (good), Raja human beings. Observation of body color, (aggressive), Toma (dullness) tongue, nail, eyes, pulse and investigation of 8 Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: A Comprehensive Approach blood, urine and fecal matter is criteria of Siddhars have to get Siddhi means attain- diagnosing actual cause of disease. ment of supernatural powers Treatment: Panchakarma is an important Theory and principles: Generally the basic treatment in Ayurveda which includes principles of the Siddha medicine are almost snehan (massage), swedan (steam), vaman similar to ayurveda. The only difference (vomit), virechan (expulsion) and basti appears is that the siddha system explains (medicated enemas). The medicines are given in detail about various basic treatments of in the form of powder (churna, bhasma), diseases while Ayurveda where surgeries liquid (asava, arishta and taila), semisolid like modern treatments are practiced and (leha or paka) and tablets (gutika, vati). written in detail. Siddha system is based on Treatment of ayurveda involves use of drugs 96 principles and out of these Triguna theory, obtained from plant, animal and mineral i.e., vata, pitta and kapha is more prominent. sources. Dosage forms of ayurveda are Under normal conditions, the ratio between powders (churna), bhasma (oxides of metals), Vata, Pitta, and Kapha is 4:2:1, respectively. quath (extracts), gutika (pills), lep (ointment), Siddha deals with thousands of herbs, asava and arishtha (alcohol containing animal, mineral and metals. Like in liquids) or taila (medicated oils). There are Ayurveda, in Siddha medicine also, the eight branches of Ayurveda: physiological components of the human 1. Kayachikitsa (internal medicine) beings are classified as vata (air), pitta (fire) 2. Kumarbhritya (pediatrics) and kapha (earth and water). 3. Trachchikitsa (psychology medicine) Siddha system believes that health is 4. Shalakya Tantra (ear, nose and throat) perfect state of physical, mental, social, moral 5. Shalya Tantra (surgery) and spiritual component. It is based on 6. Agada Tantra (toxicology) Andapinda Thathuvam means relationship 7. Rasayana Tantra (geriatrics) between universe and human body. Siddhas 8. Vajikaran Tantra (gynecology) are called as Vaithiyars. Siddha System Diagnosis: A Siddha physician studies eight Siddha system of medicine is one of the old- important things of body i.e. nadi (pulse), est medical systems known to mankind even kan (eyes), swara (voice), sparisam (touch), before ayurvedic system which was flour- varna (colour), na (tongue), mala (faeces) and ished in Vedic culture, Dravidian culture and neer (urine). Indus Valley Civilization. This system of Guna Personalities Complications medicine originated from Tamil traditional medicine. The most of literature of this sys- Vata Stout, black, Increased Vata shows cold and arrogant behaviour, tem is given in Tamil Language. 18 inactive healthy paralysis, heart attack. “Siddhas” (Spiritual persons) developed this Pitta Lean, whitish Increased Pitta shows system so it is called as Siddha. Sage complexion and graying of hair, Agathiyar is considered the guru of all perfectionist anemia and instability. Sidhas. According to Palm Leaf manuscript, Kapha Well built, good graying of hair, it is believed that it was first described by complexion and causes jaundice, Lord Shiva to his wife Parvathy and then to well behaved heart attack. their son Lord Muruga. Then he taught all these knowledge to his disciple sage Treatment: Internal as well as external Agasthya. Agasthya taught 18 Siddhars and medicines are divided into 32 categories each they spread this knowledge to human beings. separately. Pressure or massage techniques  Pharmacognosy: Scope and History 9 are also part of treatment and called as Abnormality in humor leads to disease Thokkanam. There are 108 varma points for condition in body. pressure techniques. Treatment is classified Diagnosis: The human body is considered to into three categories: devamaruthuvum be made up of seven components, which have (Divine method); manuda maruthuvum direct bearing on the health status of a person. (rational method); and asura maruthuvum They are 1. Elements (Arkan) 2. Temperament (surgical method). In Divine method (Mijaz). 3. Humors (Aklat) 4. Organs (Aaza) medicines like parpam, chendooram, guru, 5. Faculties (Quwa) 6. Spirits (Arwah) kuligai made of mercury, sulphur and 7. Functions (Afaal). These components are pashanams are used. In the rational method, taken in to consideration by the physician medicines made of herbs like churanam, for diagnosis and also for deciding the line kudineer, vadagam are used. In surgical of treatment. method, incision, excisions, use of heat or In diagnosis Unani Physican (Hakim) ask leech are used. Treatment in this system a patient a lot questions to know history and emphasizes preparation of fresh medicine. It decides treatment. is then prepared and administered with some Pathya (some restriction). E.g., Day time Treatment: After diagnosing the disease, sleeping is not allowed or some food material treatment involves either to eliminate cause is restricted like chicken, mango, coconut, (Izalae sabab), normalize humors (tadeele mustard, groundnut, almond, tobacco etc. akhlat) or to normalise tissues or organs Medicine can be kashayam (extract), (tadeele aza). Method of treatment involves churnam (powder), tailams (medicated oil), modification of essential pre-requisites of gulligai (pills), chenduram (metal), bhasmam health (Ilaj-bil-tadbeer) or panchkarma (calcination product) and or ghritam like in Ayurveda (Ilaj-bil-tadbeer) or (medicated ghee). pharmacotherapy (Ilaj-bil-advia) or surgery (Ilaj-bil-yad). As far as possible unani Unani System medicine therapy attempts to use simple This system is also called as unani-tibb or physical means to cure a disease. Some of yunani medicine which was developed by the techniques used in Ilaj-bil-tadbeer arab and persian physicians such as Rhazes (regimental therapy) include hijamah (al-Razil), Avicenna (ibn sena), Al-zahrawi, (cupping), fasd (venesection), tareeq and Ibn nafis. (sweating), idrar-e-baul (diuresis), hamam (turkish bath), dalak (massage), kai Book (cauterization), ishal (purging), qai Ibn Sina’s The Canon of Medicine (vomiting), riyazat (exercise) and taleeq Theory and principles: Unani medicine (leeching). involves concept of the four humours The bases are generally purified by (akhlat) i.e. Phlegm (Balgham), Blood (Dam), adding aab leemun (lemon juice), sat leemun Yellow bile (bafrâ’) and Black bile (lemon extract) or shibb-e-yamani (alum) etc., (Saudâ’). These “humors” are believed before making the qiwam. Afterwards, the to have its roots in the appearance of a blood ingredient drugs are mixed in qiwam to sedimentation test made in open air, which prepare majun, itrifal, laboob, tiryaqat or exhibits a dark clot at the bottom (black bile), mufarreh. For making majun or any of its a layer of unclotted erythrocytes (blood), a preparations, the consistency of qiwam for layer of white blood cells (phlegm) and a layer majun is three Tars. The consistency of of clear yellow serum (yellow bile). qiwam for laooq is two tars. 10 Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: A Comprehensive Approach Word Majun is derived from Ajn, which ¾ Principle of simplex: Only one single means to mix. In this preparation powder of simple medicine at one time and no drugs is mixed well in qiwam (basic solution combination is allowed. of particular consistency) of sugar or asl ¾ Minimum dose: Minimum medicine at a (honey). Their names are given on the name time. of inventor, chief ingredients or action. Like majun sheikhurrais is named on inventor. ¾ Law of proving: Medicine should have majun mullein is named due to its laxative the capacity to produce disease state in a action. Majun azaraqi, as azaraqi is chief healthy individual. ingredient. So itrifal (triphala), jawarish ¾ Law of dynamisation: Medicine should (digestive tonic), yaqooti (ruby containing), preserve the normal state of healthy body. bershasha are all majun but according to ¾ Vital force: Medicine should have the composition use ingredient preparation capacity to arouse sufficient energy to method, and other properties, their names are maintain a healthy body. different. Diagnosis: It involves knowing of complete Homeopathy System hereditary history as well as observation of Homeo means ‘similar’ and Pathos means moods, habits, skin, eyes, tongue, blood, urine ‘suffering’ so homeopathy is the “system of etc., of patients. similar suffering”. German physician Treatment: When the symptoms picture Samuel Hahnemann first stated the basic matches with the drug picture, the physician principle of homeopathy in 1796, known as always attempts to identify a single the “law of similars” (let like be cured by medicine. In producing remedies for like”). diseases, homeopaths use a process called Theory and principle: Homeopathy “dynamisation” or “potentiation”, whereby emphasises the root cause of the disease and a substance is diluted with alcohol or the nature’s law of its cure that is ‘like cures distilled water and then vigorously shaken like’. Thus, homeopathy deals with the in a process called “succussion”. Three following seven principles which are logarithmic potency scales are in regular use outlined below: in homeopathy for dilution. Hahnemann created the “centesimal” or “C scale”, ¾ Individualisation: No two individuals in diluting a substance by a factor of 100 at each the world are alike, i.e., the disease stage. Homeopathic pills are made from an affecting two individuals cannot be inert substance (often sugars, typically similar though they may share common lactose), upon which a drop of liquid symptoms. Therefore, the medicines used homeopathic preparation is placed. to cure the same disease in different Hahnemann began to test what effects individuals are different. substances produced in humans, a procedure ¾ Principle of similar: Use of the medicine that would later become known as will produce similar symptoms of disease “homeopathic proving”. in a healthy individual. For example, an Chinese System onion is a substance, which makes your Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is older eyes water and your nose burn. If you are than 2,000 years have been developed in having an attack of hay fever with China. Historical physicians in TCM include watering eyes and a burning nose, a Zhang Zhongjing, Hua Tuo, Sun Simiao, Tao homeopathic remedy made from onion Hongjing, Zhang Jiegu, and Li Shizhen. can relieve it.  Pharmacognosy: Scope and History 11 Book 2. Herbal Medicine: Specific herbs and their Yellow Emperor’s inner Canon, Treatise on combinations are used to cure diseases. Cold Damage 3. Diet: Herbal supplements are given as a part of diet to fortify the body constituents. Theory and principles: Chinese medicine involves concept of Yin and Yang. Yin means 4. Exercise: For healthy individuals as well negative, dark, water, moon, female, inside, as for patients, exercise is properly cold or moist. Yang means positive, bright, planned in the Chinese system. sun, fire, male, outside, hot or dry. Yin 5. Massage: It is an important part of the dominating body shows inactivity, cold or Chinese system to harmonize body lethargy while yang dominating body shows climate. fever, hyper-activity. Five element theory of Kampo System TCM (wood-germination, water-decay, fire- growth, earth-ripening and metal- Kampo medicine is an ancient traditional nourishment) relates to five body organs system that developed in Japan between the (wood-liver, fire-heart, water-kidney, earth- 7th and 9th centuries after adapting traditional spleen and metal-lung) and symolises man Chinese system. Shanki Tashiro, Dosan and nature relationship. TCM believes that Manase, Nagoya and Todo Yoshimasu are qi means energy, blood and water are three few people who played important role in essential substances for body’s normal development of Kampo system. Regulations, health. and likewise safety precautions, are much stronger and tighter for Japanese kampo than Diagnosis: Diagnosis is based on “pattern of discrimination” i..e valuation of the present chinese traditional medicine due to strict signs and symptoms on the basis of the “Eight enforcement of laws and standardization. It Principles” or causes like internal, external, was not as famous but merits of natural heat, cold, vacuity (deficiency), Repletion medicines have been recognized today and (excess), yin and yang. TCM diagnosis consists hence it is estimated that 80% of Japanese in tracing symptoms to an underlying physicians integrate kampo prescriptions disharmony pattern, mainly by palpating the into their practice. In Japan, kampo is pulse and inspecting the tongue. integrated into the national health care system and it follows strict regulations of the standardization, purity, and stability of kampo ingredients. In treatment kampo medicine is patient-centered. Theory and principles: Generally the basic principles of the kampo medicine are almost similar to TCM except abdominal diagnosis which very important in kampo than TCM. Diagnosis: In kampo system, the focus is not on the disease, but rather on treating patients and promoting well-being, assessing the Symbol of Chinese System proper fit between a pattern of symptoms and Treatment: Treatment includes: a kampo prescription. 1. Acupuncture: The acupuncture points Treatment: Now a days, it is very popular located in skin are opened and closed by system in treating chronic diseases. Till date a stainless steel needle for 20-40 minutes about 400 herbs has been explored and to adjust proper blood circulation. standardized in kampo system. 12 Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: A Comprehensive Approach Aromatherapy System ¾ Infusions: Aqueous extracts of aromatic Aromatherapy is a form of alternative plants medicine that uses essential oils in the ¾ Vaporiser: inhalation of aroma/fragrance/ treatment or prevention of certain diseases medicated oils from crushed/heated especially related to pain, anxiety, hair or plant materials skin. Evidence for the efficacy of Aromatherapy is alone does not cure aromatherapy in treating medical conditions conditions but in combination with other remains poor, with a particular lack of techniques show positive effects and helps studies employing rigorous methodology, but the body to find a natural way to cure itself some evidence exists that essential oils may and improve immune response. have therapeutic potential. Many such oils Naturopathy are described by dioscorides, along with beliefs of the time regarding their healing The term Naturopathy was coined in 1895 properties, in his De Materia Medica, written by John Scheel. Naturopathy is a system of in the first century. prevention rather treatment. Prevention through stress reduction and a healthy Modes of application in aromatherapy: nutritious diet and lifestyle is emphasized, ¾ Aerial diffusion: mood elevation, treatment and drugs and surgery are generally of migraine and headache minimized. It focuses on natural healing ¾ Direct inhalation: respiratory or central power of body thus art of living. This system nervous system associated diseases uses soil and water in treatment of diseases ¾ Topical applications: skin rejuvenation, in the form of mudpacks and steam baths skin disease treatments, , respectively. Fasting is also part of naturopathy treatment. Materials employed in Aromatherapy: ¾ Essential oil: Pure essential oils obtained Yoga by solvent extraction or distillation or Yoga consists of exercises (physical postures) expression and meditation (mental concentration). It ¾ Absolutes: Alcoholic dilutions of Pomades believes that exercise improves (fragrant oils obtained by cold fat blood circulation in the body and meditation extraction) improves mental health. Thus Yoga improves ¾ Carrier oil: Essential oils diluted in fatty physical, mental as well as social oils health along with personal behavior of the person. ¾ Herbal distillates (hydrosols): Aqueous by product of essential oil extraction Table 1.2 Eight limbs included in yoga Yama Five abstentions Ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-covetousness), brahmacharya (celibacy) and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). Niyama Five observances Shaucha (purity), santosha (contentment), tapas (austerity), svadhyaya (study of the vedic scriptures to know about god and the soul) and ishvara-pranidhana (surrender to god). Asana Seat Seated position used for meditation Pranayama Suspending breath To restrain or stop and thus control of the life force. Pratyahara Abstraction Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects Dharana Concentration Fixing the attention on a single object Dhyana Meditation Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation Samadhi Liberation Merging consciousness with the object of meditation  Pharmacognosy: Scope and History 13 Crude Drugs alphabetical order using either their Greek name or Latin name. Though Crude drugs are the drugs, which are pharmacopoeias, formulary, encyclopedias obtained from natural sources like plant, of various countries follow this classification, animals or minerals and used as such as but due to lack of scientific value now-a-days they occur in nature without any processing this classification is not preferred. Example: except, collection, drying and size reduction. Acacia, Bael, Cinchona, Dill, Ergot, Fennel, It also defined as the drugs that have not Ginger, Henbane, Ipecac, Jalap, Kurchi, been advanced in value or improved in Licorice, Myrrh, Nux-Vomica, Opium, condition by shredding, grinding, chipping, Podophyllum, Quassia, Rauwolfia, Senna, crushing, distilling, evaporating, extracting, Tea, Urgenia, Vasaka, Wool Fat, Yam, artificial mixing with other substances or any Zedoary etc. Major Advantage of this method other process beyond that which is essential is that it provides quick reference. to its proper packing and to prevention of decay or deterioration during Morphological Classification: This is most manufacturing. Crude drugs and their simple classification method where crude constituents are commonly used as drugs are grouped into two major classes: therapeutic agents. Major sources of crude organized (having specific parts of plant like drugs are plant (senna, opium, digitalis and root, rhizome, flower, leaf, fruit, bark, seed, clove), animal (musk, honey, shark liver oil) wood etc.,) and unorganized drugs (dried and mineral (shilajit, talc, bentonite). lattice, juice, gum, wax, oil etc.). But many crude drugs are very similar morphologically Classification of Crude Drug and hence difficult to distinguish. Many In Pharma-cognosy crude drugs are times crude drug available in powder form classified in the following category. that time morphological classification is not Alphabetical Classification: In this so suitable and acceptable. classification drugs are classified in Organised crude drugs Un-organised crude drugs Parts of plants or animals Obtained from parts of plants Well defined structure Not well defined structures Solid in nature Semisolid, solid, liquid in nature Microscopic studies are useful in quality control Chemical tests are more useful in quality control Examples Examples Parts Example Class Example Leaves Senna, digitalis, vasaka, Resins Balsam of tolu, myrrh, eucalyptus asafoetida, benzoin Barks Cinchona, kurchi, cinnamom, Gums and Acacia, tragacanth, quaillia mucilages guar gum Woods Quassia, sandalwood Dried latices Opium Roots Rauwolfia, ipecacuanha, Dried juices Aloes, kino aconite Rhizomes Turmeric, ginger, valerian, Volatile oils Cinnamon oil podophyllum Table Contd... 14 Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: A Comprehensive Approach Parts Example Class Example Seeds Nux-vomica, strophanthus Fixed Oil Castor oil and lard Flowers Clove, saffron Waxes Beeswax Fruits Coriander, colocynth, fennel, Extracts Catechu bael Entire plant Vinca, belladonna Saccharine Honey substances Part Example Biological or Pharmacological Classi- fication: In this classification, crude drugs Leaves Senna, digitalis, vasaka, eucalyptus having similar therapeutic effects or Barks Cinchona, kurchi, cinnamom pharmacological activity are grouped Woods Quassia, sandalwood together but drugs having more than one Roots Rauwolfia, ipecacuanha, aconite therapeutic effect are difficult to classify. It Rhizomes Turmeric, ginger, valerian, also doesn’t give any idea about chemistry podophyllum or taxonomy. Seeds Nux-vomica, strophanthus Flowers Clove, saffron Pharmacological Drug Fruits Coriander, colocynth, fennel Action Entire plant Vinca, belladonna Carminatives Fennel, coriander, clove. Resins Balsam of tolu, myrrh, asafoetida, Purgatives Cascara, aloe, senna, rhubarb. benzoin Cardio tonics Digitalis, squill, strophanthus Gums and Acacia, tragacanth, guar gum Anti- cancer Taxol, vinca, podophyllum Mucilages CNS stimulant Nux-vomica Expectorant Vasaka, liquorice Dried lattices Opium Bitter tonic Gentian, chirata Dried juices Aloes, kino Chemical Classification: This classification Taxonomic Classification: In this is purely based on chemistry of constituents. classification crude drugs are arranged Different crude drugs are classified according to taxonomic order i.e., phylum, according to the presence of major active division, class, sub-class, orders, families, constituents. This is most preferred method genus and species (See chapter 2 for more of classification. details). Precise and orderly arrangement of drugs has no ambiguity in this classification. Chemical class Drugs But again this type of classification lacks Alkaloid Cinchona, rauwolfia, datura scientific value and unorganized crude drugs Volatile oil Clove, fennel oil, coriander Glycoside Senna, digitalis, licorice are difficult to classify. Resin Jalap, ginger, tolu balsam Phylum - Spermatophyta Carbohydrate Acacia, honey, starch, isapgol Division - Angiospermae Tannin Arjuna, ashoka Lipid Castor oil, peanut oil, mustard Class - Dicotyledons Protein Casein, gelatin Sub-class - Sympetalae Enzyme Papain, trypsin Order - Tubiflorae Family - Solanaceae Chemotaxonomic Classification: Chemo- Genus - Atropa taxonomy is a technique which establishes relation between chemistry and taxonomy. It Species – belladonna is also called as chemosystematics.  Pharmacognosy: Scope and History 15 Morphological characters and chemical results in the production of specific constituents are interrelated and have a lot antibodies. When animal serum containing significant for the plant taxonomy. E.g., In antibodies also called antiserum reacts in- case of eucalyptus, feather-veined leaves have vitro with the antigenic proteins as well as high pinene content in their essential oil, proteins from other related taxa, of which the while intermediate veined leaves contain affinities are in question, leads to formation both pinene and cineole. Chemotaxonomic of a precipitate. This is called precipitin study starts with exact choice of group, then reaction. The degree of protein homology is sound sampling, analysis of chemical determined by the amount of precipitation content, interpretation, comparison and and hence it is taken as a phylogenetic finally classification. More details on this marker and taxonomic character. If no topic can be read in chapter 7. precipitation is observed then there is no Serotaxonomical Classification: Serology relation and if high precipitate then close deals with studies of antigen-antibody relationship among examined taxas. reaction to provide knowledge of origin and Crude protein extracts contain a large properties of antisera. Serotaxonomic number of proteins, which stimulates the classification involves phytoserology which production of a vast range of antibodies, carries in-vitro immunochemical reaction of which differ in their specificity and reactivity. plant proteins (antigens or agglutinogens) to Some are produced in abundance while detect taxonomic homology based on others are hardly detectable. But advanced antibodies (agglutinins) produced in serologic techniques allows to deals with animals. Desipite significant contribution single antigen and antibody. The made in the serotaxonomy, it has so far not “antisystematic” reactions have recently gained much importance in the plant been shown to result from variation in the classification. The most common approach systematic ranges of determinants; and the in serotaxonomic classification of plants is absorption (pre-saturation) technique for “precipitin reaction”. Precipitin is antibody removing common determinants increases which causes precipitation. the accuracy of serological placements. Precipitin reaction: After injecting a crude Immunodiffusion in Agarose Gels, Rocket plant protein extract into the blood stream of Immuno-electrophoresis and Enzyme- an experimental animal like rabbit or a rat Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) are commonly used techniques in serotaxonomy. Table 1.3 Parameters involved in pharmacognostic study of crude drug Parameters Description Common names Names in various languages Biological source Genus, species and family Geographical source Location History Discovery of crude drug Cultivation , collection and preparation Time and method of cultivation, irrigation, for market climate, fertilizers, collection time, processing etc. Morphological description Color, odor, taste, size, shape, extra features Microscopical description Cell, tissue type and arrangement, cell inclusions, special characters etc Table 1.3 Contd... 16 Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: A Comprehensive Approach Parameters Description Chemical constituents major and minor chemical constituents present Chemical tests To Identify crude drug and its chemistry Uses and pharmacological actions Various therapeutic applications Adulterants and Commercial varieties Useful for quality control Formulations available in Market To understand market potential Quality control and standardization To establish qualitative and quantitative standards with the help of sophisticated instruments. Sources of Crude Drug Plant Plant source is the oldest source of drugs. About 25% of the drugs prescribed worldwide come from plants, 121 such active compounds being in current use. Of the 252 drugs considered as basic and essential by the World Health Organisation (WHO), 11% are exclusively of plant origin and a significant number are synthetic drugs obtained from natural precursors. Plants provide a large bank of rich, complex and highly varied structures which are unlikely to be synthesized in laboratories. e.g. digoxin from Digitalis spp., quinine and quinidine from Cinchona spp., vincristrine and vinblastine from Catharanthus roseus, atropine from Atropa belladonna and morphine and codeine from Papaver somniferum. Animal Animals can sometimes be a source of new drugs. e.g. Honey from honeybee, beeswax from bees, cod liver oil from shark, Bufalin from toad, animal pancreas is a source of Insulin, musk oil from musk, spermaceti wax from sperm whale, woolfat from sheep, carminic acid from colchineal, venoms from snake Mineral A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is solid and stable at room temperature, representable by a chemical formula, usually abiogenic, and has an ordered atomic structure. Most naturally occurring mineral substances are used in medicine in a highly purified form. e.g. sulfur is a key ingredient in certain bacteriostatic drugs, shilajit is used as tonic, calamine is used as anti-itching agent Marine Bioactive compounds from marine flora and fauna have extensive past and present use in the treatment of many diseases and serve as compounds of interest both in their natural form and as templates for synthetic modification. Several molecules isolated from various marine organisms (microorganisms, algae, fungi, invertebrates, and vertebrates) are currently under study. For instance, about 300 patents on bioactive marine natural product have been issued between 1969 and 1999. So far, more than 10,000 compounds have been isolated from marine organisms. Only 10% of over 25,000 plants have been investigated for biological activity. e.g. Agar -agar is a gelatinous substance derived by boiling a polysaccharide in red algae, Carrageenans or carrageenins are a family of linear sulfated polysaccharides that are extracted from red seaweeds, Plant Plant tissue culture refers to growing and multiplication of cells, tissues and organs on tissue defined solid or liquid media under aseptic and controlled environment. Plant cell and culture tissue cultures hold great promise for controlled production of myriad of useful secondary metabolites on demand. e.g. antihypertensive ajmalicine from callus culture of Catharanthus roseus, anti-inflammatory berberine from suspension culture of Thalictrum minus, anti-parkinson L-DOPA from callus culture of Stizolobium hassjo, immunomodulatory ginsenoside from callus culture of ginseng etc.