GFPA2043 Week 3 Notes Renaissance in Europe PDF

GFPA2043_03 Notes for the Slides – GFPA2043-Week 03 The Beginning of the Modern Era 1400-1600: Renaissance in Europe Slide Notes 01 Artwork - The School of Athens (1509-1511) (Italian: Scuola di Atene) by Raphael (b.1483-d.1520), a...

GFPA2043_03 Notes for the Slides – GFPA2043-Week 03 The Beginning of the Modern Era 1400-1600: Renaissance in Europe Slide Notes 01 Artwork - The School of Athens (1509-1511) (Italian: Scuola di Atene) by Raphael (b.1483-d.1520), a fresco in the Apostolic Palace, Vatican City. It depicts a congregation of various classical (and contemporary) scholars, philosophers, thinkers, scientists, mathematicians which among others include Plato and his student, Aristotle in the center. 02 1. Renaissance - "great period of revival of classical-based art and learning in Europe that began in the fourteenth century," 1840, from French renaissance des lettres, from Old French renaissance, literally "rebirth," usually in a spiritual sense, from renastre "grow anew" (of plants), "be reborn" (Modern French renaître), from Vulgar Latin *renascere, from Latin renasci "be born again, rise again, reappear, be renewed," from re- "again" (see re-) + nasci "be born" (Old Latin gnasci, from PIE root *gene- "give birth, beget"). 2. Medieval Europe is characterized as a fragmented feudal society with agricultural economy and the church dominating its thought and culture. Renaissance on the other hand was characterized by growing national consciousness and political centralization, an urban economy based on organized commerce and capitalism, paving ways for lay and secular control of thought and culture, including religion. 3. Following the demographic decline in Europe due to the Black Death, the social fabric drastically changed. The disease harmed people, but not property, while striking the poor and the rich equally. The survivors inherited money, lands and buildings. There was a surplus of clothes and garments, which was eventually used to make rag-paper, to print books and facilitate the spread of knowledge upon the invention of the printing press. 4. Farmer/labor shortages (due to death of plague victims) resulted in nobles & feudal lords competing for farm labors. This led to wage increment, resulting in the growth of the middle class and the economy in general. The new growth of towns and cities began to offer new opportunities to the children of farmers. The invention of the printing press, proliferate literacy and education in general. Ship building, trade, and commerce would soon increase dramatically with the beginning of The Age of Discovery. 5. The prosperous city of Florence is widely regarded as the starting point of Renaissance. Being a trading city, the populations are relatively wealthy. However, due to its fragmented political scenarios, the princes and nobles provide sponsorship and patronage to artists and intellectuals. Previous literary works of, Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) and Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) were attributed to spark renewed interests in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Source: https://www.etymonline.com/word/renaissance Source: van Doren, Charles., (1992). A History of Knowledge: Past, Present and Future - The Pivotal Events, People, and Achievements of World History. Ballantine Books. (p.152) Source: Berger, Eugene et.al., World History: Cultures, States, and Societies to 1500. University of North Georgia Press. 03 1. The beginning of the end of a feudal system. The birth of merchant class, who initially do not inherit their wealth or rank, rather become successful and powerful by their own merit. The notion of individual merit & achievement is an important aspect during the renaissance period. 2. For the economic system, the society changes from agrarian-society to urban society. Banking system was introduced to facilitate inter-city trades. 3. The Papacy suffered a loss of its monarchical power and influence, having to compete and compromise with lay rulers pertaining to the government of the clergy within their dominions, in particular in matters of taxation, appointments to benefices and judicial appeals. The Great Schism (1378–1417), during which there were two and, in its later stages, three rival claimants to the papal throne, gave a great opportunity to the conciliar movement, because to end the scandal it was Page 1 of 7  GFPA2043_03 necessary to summon a council of the Church, which met at Constance. Most conciliarists wanted councils to be a regular feature of the government of the Church and to be superior to popes. The popes eventually managed to defeat this movement, but to do so were forced to make large concessions to lay rulers, in order to win their support. 4. Renaissance society was also marked by a growing secular outlook. Intrigued by the active life of the city and eager to enjoy the worldly pleasures that their money could obtain, wealthy merchants and bankers moved away from the medieval preoccupation with salvation. Although they were neither nonbelievers nor atheists, for them religion increasingly had to compete with worldly concerns. Consequently, members of the urban upper class paid religion less heed or at least did not allow it to interfere with their quest for a full life. The challenge and pleasure of living well in this world seemed more exciting than the promise of heaven. 5. Philosophical – Publication of The Prince (1531-post-humous publication) by Machiavelli (1469- 1527), Leviathan (1651) by Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) reflects the power dynamics of the society, between the ruler and the ruled. 6. Scientific advancement includes the introduction of the heliocentric model of the universe, away from Ptolemaic geocentric model variant of the universe. 7. Church leaders beautified Rome and other cities during the period by becoming patrons by financially supporting the artists. Having their portraits painted or donating art to the city to place in public square, they may demonstrate their wealth and importance. New style of arts that emphasized on realism, naturalness and verisimilitude was born. 8. The newfound wealth of the Black Death survivors (and their descendants) drove them to the history's great spending sprees. The rampant consumerism was fueled by a general relaxation of morals that followed the epidemic. When you are surrounded by death, it is not so easy to impose strict rules on your family, neighbors, or subjects. This pursuit of materialism persists into the fifteenth century, into the Renaissance Era. Source: Perry, Marvin., Chase, Myrna., Jacob, James R., et.al (2009). Western Civilization – Ideas, Politics and Society (Ninth Edition). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. (p.299) Source: (p.472-473) Source: van Doren, Charles., (1992). A History of Knowledge: Past, Present and Future - The Pivotal Events, People, and Achievements of World History. Ballantine Books. (p.120, 152) 04 Europe in the Second Half of the Fifteenth Century By the second half of the fifteenth century, monarchs in Western Europe, particularly France, Spain, and England, had begun the process of modern state building. With varying success, they reined in the power of the church and nobles, increased their ability to levy taxes, and established effective government bureaucracies. Source: Duiker, William J., & Spielvogel Jackson J., (2019). World History – Ninth Edition. Cengage Learning. (p.383) 05 1. Being the natural gateway of trade between the East and the West, the city-states such as the Republic of Florence, Republic of Genoa, Republic of Venice, the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples became bustling urban centers of Europe, dominating the political and economic life of the surrounding countryside. Merchants having made fortunes through commerce lend moneys to the popes and princes, therefore taking the role as bankers. 2. There was no single monarch for a unified Italy, rather the city-states are independent by itself. For several generation, the popes were either absent in Avignon or engaged in disputes due to the Great Schism, therefore diminishing the role and influence of Rome. The merchant oligarchies each in its own city, enjoyed an unhampered stage on which to pursue interests other than those of business. In some, as at Milan, they succumbed to or worked with a local prince or despot. In others, as at Florence, Venice, and Genoa, they continued to govern themselves as republics. They had the experience of contending for public office, of suppressing popular revolt or winning Page 2 of 7  GFPA2043_03 popular favor, of producing works of public munificence, of making alliances, hiring armies, outwitting rivals, and conducting affairs of state. In short, Italy offered an environment in which many facets of human personality could be developed. 3. The learning of Greeks and Roman cultures were done through several ways, which include the study of Roman ruins in their surroundings, studying ancient Latin manuscript preserved in the monasteries and through Christian scholars who fled Constantinople, bringing with them Greek manuscripts when the city was conquered by the Turks in 1453. Source: Kagan, Donald., Ozment, Steven., & Turner, Frank M., (2010). The Western Heritage (Tenth Edition). Prentice Hall. (p.283) Source: Palmer, R. R., Colton, Joel., Kramer, Llyod., (2007). A History of the Modern World: To 1815 (Tenth Edition). McGraw Hill. (p.56-57) 06 1. The Florentine developed international banking, and now merchant class enjoy a greater social standing than in the classical antiquity, and start to play leading role in the government of many city-states. A council of six (later eight) members known as the Signoria administers the city. These men were chosen from the most powerful guilds, namely, those representing the major clothing industries (cloth, wool, fur, and silk) and such other groups as bankers, judges, and doctors. 2. The Medici family bank had branches throughout major cities of Europe. Cosimo de Medici was the wealthiest European of his time, and became the de-facto “ruler” of Florence by 1434, by manipulating the constitution, and influencing elections. Through informal, cordial relations with the electors, Cosimo was able to keep councilors loyal to him in the Signoria. From his position as the head of the Office of Public Debt, he favored congenial factions until his death in 1464. 3. The family continues to control Florence, with his grandson, Lorenzo Medici aka Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449–1492), ruled Florence in almost totalitarian fashion during the last, chaotic quarter of the fifteenth century. The assassination of his brother in 1478 by a rival family, the Pazzi, who had long plotted with the pope against the Medicis, made Lorenzo a cautious and determined ruler. The rule of the Medici family over Florence lasted until 1737. Source: Kagan, Donald., Ozment, Steven., & Turner, Frank M., (2010). The Western Heritage (Tenth Edition). Prentice Hall. (p.284) Source: Butters, Humfrey. (2018). Europe in 1500. In the European World 1500-1800 – An Introduction to Early Modern History (Third Edition). Edited by Kumin, Beat. Routledge. p.16 07 1. The power and influence of the Medici family over renaissance Europe is best portrayed by their political achievements. Some became popes in the 16-17th century, Leo X (r.1513-1521), Clement VII (r.1523-1534), Pope Pius IV (r.1559-1656) and Pope Leo XI (1605). 2. Two of the Medici women, Catherine de Medici (queen consort 1547-1559, queen regent 1560- 1563) became the queen of France by marriage to King Henry II (married by Clement VII who was her grandparent’s cousin) whereas Marie de Medici (queen consort.1600-1610, queen regent 1610-1614) became the second wife to Henry IV. 3. Pope Clement VII are known for his patronage of the arts, which include Michelangelo's “The Last Judgment” and Raphael’s “The Transfiguration.” 4. Jakob Fugger “the rich” (1459-1525) was considered to be one of the wealthiest people to have ever existed with an adjusted net worth of USD 400 billion today. The descendants of the family remain to be among the wealthiest people in Europe today. Source: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-08-23/how-to-stay-rich-in-europe-inherit-money- for-700-years Artwork: Jakob Fugger by Albrecht Durer (1518) 08 1. Humanism refers to an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements. Rather than trying to make classical texts agree with Christian teaching as medieval scholars had, Page 3 of 7  GFPA2043_03 humanists studied them to understand ancient Greek values. This movement influenced artists and architects to carry on classical traditions, while popularising the study of subjects common to classical education, such as history, literature, and philosophy. These subjects are called the humanities. Source: Perry, Marvin., Chase, Myrna., Jacob, James R., et.al (2009). Western Civilization – Ideas, Politics and Society (Ninth Edition). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. (p.299) 09 1. Petrarch (1304-1374), often regarded as the Father of Italian Renaissance sought out forgotten Latin manuscripts (among which, he found letters by Cicero) and began the humanist emphasis on the use of pure classical Latin, thus often regarded as the first man of letters. Despite being a trained lawyer, he spent his life travelling throughout France and Italy, writing. 2. Boccaccio (1313-1375) is another figure often associated with humanism. He wrote ‘Decameron’ in Italian. It was a series of 100 bawdy tales, told by three men and seven women in a country retreat as plague ravaged Florence in 1348, designed to entertain and impart wisdom. He was also an avid collector of manuscripts, and assembled an encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology. 3. Petrarch, Boccaccio, and their followers carried the recovery of the classics further by making a systematic attempt to discover the classical roots of medieval Italian rhetoric. 4. Petrarch’s own efforts to learn Greek were largely unsuccessful, but by encouraging his students to master the ancient tongue, he advanced humanist learning. Petrarch was particularly drawn to Cicero, the ancient Roman orator. Following the example of Cicero, Petrarch insisted that education should consist not only of learning and knowing things but also of learning how to communicate one’s knowledge and how to use it for the public good. Therefore, the emphasis in education should be on rhetoric and moral philosophy, wisdom combined with eloquence. 5. Petrarch’s work was more secular than Dante’s “Divine Comedy,” but both form the cornerstone of Italian vernacular literature. 6. Another Florentine, Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444) who wrote a history of Florence which marked a new achievement in historical writing, when compared with the annals and chronicles of the Middle Ages. He saw the past as clearly past, different from but relevant to the present; and he introduced a new division of historical periods. And he used history for a practical political purpose, to show that Florence had a long tradition of liberty and possessed values and attainments worth fighting for against menacing neighbours. History took on a utility that it had had for the Greeks and Romans and was to retain in the future in Europe and eventually in other parts of the world: the function of heightening a sentiment, not yet of nationalism, but of collective civic consciousness or group identity. 7. While a special dignity attached to writing in Latin, known throughout Europe, most of the humanists wrote in Italian also. Or rather, they used the mode of speech current in Florence. This had also been the language of Dante in the Divine Comedy. To this vast poem the humanists now added many writings in Florentine or Tuscan prose. The result was that Florentine became the standard form of modern Italian. It was the first time that a European vernacular-that is, the common spoken tongue as opposed to Latin-became thus standardized amid the variety of its dialects and adapted in structure and vocabulary to the more complex requirements of a written language. French and English soon followed, and most of the other European languages somewhat later. Source: Craig, Albert M., Graham, William A., Kagan, Donald., Ozment, Steven., & Turner, Frank M., (2016). The Heritage of World Civilizations (Volume 1 – To 1700) (Tenth Edition). Pearson. (p.411) Source: Perry, Marvin., Chase, Myrna., Jacob, James R., et.al (2009). Western Civilization – Ideas, Politics and Society (Ninth Edition). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. (p.300) Source: Palmer, R. R., Colton, Joel., Kramer, Llyod(2007). A History of the Modern World: To 1815 (Tenth Edition). McGraw Hill. (p.64) Page 4 of 7  GFPA2043_03 Artwork - Illustration from a ca. 1492 edition of Il Decameron published in Venice 10 1. Implicit in the humanist educational ideal was a radical transformation of the medieval (Augustinian) view of humanity. According to this view, since human beings were completely subject to divine will, not only were they incapable of attaining excellence through their own efforts and talents, but it was also wrong and sinful for them even to try. In contrast, the humanists, recalling the classical Greek concept of arete, made the achievement of excellence through individual striving the end not only of education but also of life itself. Moreover, because individuals were capable of this goal, it was their duty to pursue it as the end of life, although the pursuit was not effortless and indeed demanded extraordinary energy and skill. People were deemed capable of excellence in every sphere and duty-bound to make the effort. This emphasis on human creative powers was one of the most characteristic and influential doctrines of the Renaissance. 2. The invention of the printing press in 1454 by Johannes Guttenberg, followed by the increased rate of literacy has resulted in the widespread adoption of reading as a common practice among the masses. 11 1. Machiavelli, being an official and sometimes acted as a diplomat for the Republic of Florence wrote The Prince, in which he advocated that the Ruler should devote himself to the art of war as an instrument to gain and retain power, that the ends justify the mean instead of basing their leadership on moralist platitudes or good intention. He made observations on the overthrow of the Medici family (in 1494), stating that “unarmed prophets” inevitably come to grief. The notion of “necessita” (political necessity), related to the doctrine of “ragion di stato/raison d’etat” (reason of state) transcends the realm of private morality, rather it was based on “situational ethics.” 2. The Leviathan (1651) was written during the English Civil War while Hobbes was in exile in Paris at the court of Charles II (as he later became). Thomas Hobbes, who likely knew his Machiavelli and had himself translated Thucydides into English, famously identified the state of nature as a state of war, and viewed human nature as self-interested, unconstrained by higher law, and characterized by “a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death.” The natural social condition is one of violent chaos, and while individuals can combine to escape this anarchy by devolving authority to a sovereign, the state, lacking any higher authority, is condemned to perpetual conflict: peace for Hobbes is only a period of recuperation before the next war, and, as with Machiavelli, foreign policy is perforce conducted in a moral and legal vacuum. 3. For the Realist, Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes speak to each other and to contemporary Realist theory across the centuries because the issues they address (human nature, the pursuit of power, and the anarchic character of the international realm) are timeless. Source: Malchow, Howard LeRoy, “History and International Relations – From the Ancient World to the 21st Century,” 2020 (p.39-40) Artwork: Portrait of Macchiavelli by Santi di Tito Artwork: Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici (to whom “The Prince” was initially dedicated to) by Raphael (1518) 12 1. A man who excelled in many fields was praised as a “universal man.” Later ages called such people “Renaissance men.” Baldassare Castiglione wrote a book called The Courtier (1528) that taught how to become such a person. 2. A few women, such as Isabella d’Este, did exercise power. Born into the ruling family of the city- state of Ferrara, she married the ruler of another city-state, Mantua. She brought many Renaissance artists to her court and built a famous art collection. She was also skilled in politics. When her husband was taken captive in war, she defended Mantua and won his release. 13 1. The renaissance also marked an advancement in art, painting music and sculpture. 2. They emphasized on realistic humanistic ideals and religious figures or theme remain popular, although Greek & Roman theme, or secular theme are also explored. Contemporary secular subjects include the painting of prominent citizens. New artistic technique such as perspective was employed to illustrate three-dimensional space on flat surface. Page 5 of 7  GFPA2043_03 3. Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa (whose smile remains enigmatic) and the Last Supper (Jesus & his twelve disciples) was a great artist, engineer, visionary. A true renaissance man who studies how muscles work and veins are arranged among other things. Also, arguably to be the first who envisioned a prototype or concept for helicopter and tanks. 4. Michelangelo was an architect and an artist who was involved in the designing of St Peters Basilica. Both Michelangelo & Donatello made sculptures of David, a great king according to the Bible. 14 1. Donatello’s David in bronze (circa 1440?). 2. Michelangelo’s David (1501-1504) in marble. 3. Benvenuto Cellini’s Perseus with the head of medusa in bronze (1545-1554). 15 1. Clockwise from top right, Leonardo’s prototype design for helicopter, armored war carriage/tanks, self-supporting bridge diagram & sketch. 16 1. The Northern Renaissance involved other countries in Europe (England, France, kingdoms within the Holy Roman Empire (modern day Germany), the Flanders region – modern day Belgium & the Netherlands). 2. The end of the Hundred Years War (1337-1453) led to revival of urban growth. Wealthy merchants, even monarchs become patrons to artists as well. Famous painters include Albrecht Durer, Jan van Eyck and Pieter Bruegel. 3. Van Eyck used the recently developed oil-based pints to develop techniques still used by painters today. By applying layers upon layers of oil paints upon one another, a variety of subtle colours may be created. His paintings also later influence the work of other northern European artists. Artwork – Francis I of France (b1494-d1547) (r1515-1547) by Jean Clouet (circa1530). Known to have invited Leonardo da Vinci to retire in France. 17 1. The Arnolfini Portrait/The Arnolfini Wedding (1434) oil on oak panel believed to depict the Italian merchant Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini and his wife, presumably in their residence at the Flemish city of Bruges. 2. Portrait of a Man (1433) (self-portrait?) 18 1. An important figure, a northern humanist in the Northern Renaissance was a Dutchman, Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (1465-1536) who wrote the Bible in Greek, Christian Knight, as well as Praise of Folly that pokes fun on greedy merchants, heartsick lovers, quarrelsome scholars, and pompous priests. Erasmus believed in a Christianity of the heart, not one of ceremonies or rules. He thought that in order to improve society, all people should study the Bible. 2. Thomas More (1478-1535) tried to show a better model of society. In 1516, he wrote the book Utopia. In Greek, utopia translates to “no place/nowhere.” In English it has come to mean an ideal place as depicted in More’s book. The book is about an imaginary land where greed, corruption, and war have been weeded out. A place with an ideal system of political and social structure and freedom of religion. In Utopia, because there was little greed, Utopians had little use for money 3. It is said that QE (b1533-c1603) (r.1558-1603) spoke English, French, Italian, Latin and Greek while also being a fan of poetry and music. 4. Shakespeare’s works, which include his play of Julius Caesar is a prime example of the classical influence in his work. His use of language is believed to have shaped the development of modern English language 19 1. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), He was born & raised in Royal Prussia, a semi-autonomous multilingual region of the kingdom of Poland to a German-speaking parents and grew up speaking German. He himself are postulated to have spoken Latin, German, Polish, Greek, Italian and some knowledge of Hebrew. 2. He introduced the idea of heliocentric universe, that the earth and other celestial bodies revolve around the Sun as the center of the universe. It is a departure from Ptolemaic geocentric universe model where earth is assumed to be the center of the universe and everything else revolve around us. Page 6 of 7  GFPA2043_03 3. Although moveable type printing has been developed by the Chinese as early as 1045 by Bi Sheng, the nature of the Chinese language that relies on thousands of characters make it impractical. Johann Guttenberg adapt and refine the technology for European languages that use Latin alphabet system. His refinement made it possible to produce books quickly and cheaply. Using this improved process, Gutenberg printed a complete Bible, the Gutenberg Bible, in about 1455. It was the first full-sized book printed with movable type. 4. Martin Behaim (1459-1507) and Johannes Schöner (1477-1547) were famous German cartographers and renaissance men. 5. Behaim was famous for his Erdapfel (German for Earth apple), the oldest surviving terrestrial globe. 6. Schoner was a polyglot being a priest, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, cosmographer, mathematician, globe and scientific instrument maker, editor and publisher of scientific tests. He owned his own printing company and published many maps and globes. He produced the first ever printed celestial globe in his workshop in 1517, as a matching pair to his printed terrestrial globe from 1515. He made another globe in 1520. 20 1. Criticisms of the Catholic Church Critics of the Church claimed that its leaders were corrupt. 2. The popes who ruled during the Renaissance patronized the arts, spent extravagantly on personal pleasure, and fought wars. 3. Pope Alexander VI, for example, admitted that he had fathered several children. Many popes were too busy pursuing worldly affairs to have much time for spiritual duties. 4. The lower clergy had problems as well. Many priests and monks were so poorly educated that they could scarcely read, let alone teach people. Others broke their priestly vows by marrying, and some drank to excess or gambled. 5. Early Calls for Reform Influenced by reformers, people had come to expect higher standards of conduct from priests and church leaders. 6. In the late 1300s and early 1400s, John Wycliffe of England and Jan Hus of Bohemia had advocated Church reform. They denied that the pope had the right to worldly power. They also taught that the Bible had more authority than Church leaders did. 7. In the 1500s Christian humanists like Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas More added their voices to the chorus of criticism. In addition, many Europeans were reading religious works and forming their own opinions about the Church. The atmosphere in Europe was ripe for reform by the early 1500s. 21 1. 1527 – Henry VIII asked the Pope to end his first marriage but the pope refused. 2. 1529 – The dismantling of the papal power and influence begins. 3. 1531 – The Parliament recognizes Henry VIII as the head of the Church, the birth of the Anglican Church. 4. 1533 – Parliament places the clergy under Henry’s control. He divorced Catherine and marries Anne Boleyn. 22 1. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 and their monopoly of the spice and goods from the east motivated the Europeans to find an alternative route to bypass the territories under the Ottoman control. Thus, Magellan’s circumnavigation, and Columbus’ voyage to the west and his “discovery” of the American continent. 2. Humanism, which emphasizes on individual merit and achievements also play a part in motivating the explorers, merchants and navigators of the period to undertake such journey. Their successes may translate to fame and prestige of their master/lord/monarch. Page 7 of 7