Learning: Lecture Notes PDF

KARTINI ILIAS, LEARNING SENIOR LECTURER/CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, UiTM LECTURE OVERVIEW 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning 3. Cognitive-Social Learning 4. The Biology of Learning LEARNING A relativ...

KARTINI ILIAS, LEARNING SENIOR LECTURER/CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, UiTM LECTURE OVERVIEW 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning 3. Cognitive-Social Learning 4. The Biology of Learning LEARNING A relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes as a result of practice or experience. 3 MAJOR TYPES OF BEHAVIORAL LEARNING 1- CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: Definition: Classical Conditioning: Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR). KEY CONCEPTS:  Neutral Stimulus (NS): a stimulus that doesn’ t naturally bring about the response of interest;  Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that elicits an UCR without previous conditioning;  Unconditioned Response (UCR): unlearned reaction to an UCS without prior conditioning;  Conditioned Stimulus (CS): previous NS that, through repeated pairings with an UCS, now causes a CR;  Conditioned Response (CR): learned reaction to a CS; PROCESS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 1.Before Conditioning: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation) NS (bell) → No response 2.During Conditioning: NS (bell) is paired with UCS (food) → UCR (salivation) 3.After Conditioning: CS (bell) → CR (salivation) KEY PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 1- Acquisition The phase in which a response is first established. In classical conditioning, it's when the organism learns to associate the neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food), leading to the conditioned response (e.g., salivating). The response gets stronger with repeated pairings. Example: Every time you ring a bell and give your dog food, the dog starts to salivate upon hearing the bell alone. This is the acquisition phase where the association is being learned. 2- Extinction: Happens when the conditioned stimulus (e.g., the bell) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food). Over time, the conditioned response (e.g., salivation) will weaken and eventually disappear. Example: If you keep ringing the bell but stop giving your dog food, after a while, the dog will stop salivating to the sound of the bell. The learned behavior has become extinct. 3- Spontaneous Recovery: Even after extinction, the conditioned response can suddenly reappear when the conditioned stimulus is presented again after a rest period. This recovery is usually temporary and the response is often weaker. Example: A few days after extinction, you ring the bell again, and the dog might briefly start salivating, even though it had previously stopped doing so. 4- Generalization: Learned response not only to the original stimulus but also to other similar stimuli Example: A child who's scared of a white rabbit might also become scared of white fluffy things like cotton balls or white cats because they resemble the rabbit. 5- Discrimination: Learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli. Example: The child scared of the white rabbit isn’ t scared of other white things, like marshmallows or snow, because they’ ve learned to distinguish between them.  WATSON’ S CONTRIBUTION: Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): a classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus (NS); Little Albert and the white rat https://www.youtube.com /watch?v=V09FuazW8bc&t =15s APPLICATION IN DAILY LIFE: “Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which, when a neutral stimulus is paired with a natural stimulus, there comes a time when the neutral stimulus starts to elicit the same response as that of the natural stimulus.” In a simpler term: When something neutral starts to cause the same reaction as something natural, it's called classical conditioning. This happens when the neutral thing, like a bell, is repeatedly connected with the natural thing, like food. 1- SMARTPHONE NOTIFICATIONS Neutral Stimulus: Notification Sound Unconditioned Response: No emotional reaction Natural Stimulus: Something that triggers an emotional response Natural Response: Emotional Response (stress or excitement) Conditioned Stimulus: Notification Sound Conditioned Response: Emotional Response (stress or excitement) 2- ALARM BELL Neutral Stimulus: Alarm Sound Unconditioned Response: No response Natural Stimulus: Alarm Sound Natural Response: Waking up when you’ re asleep. Conditioned Stimulus: Alarm Sound Conditioned Response: Becoming alert whenever you hear it Are there any conditioned responses you’ ve developed to seemingly neutral stimuli? 2- OPERANT CONDITIONING: Operant/Instrumental Conditioning: Learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences; A type of learning where behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences, specifically through reinforcement (to increase behavior) or punishment (to decrease behavior) Thorndike’ s Contribution- Law of Effect: the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fyOUgwDbvdY  KEY CONCEPTS: 1- Reinforcement: Strengthens the likelihood of a behavior occurring again Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to Adding something pleasant to increase increase behavior. behavior. Example: Turning off a loud noise Example: Giving praise or rewards when a task is completed. for completing tasks.  KEY CONCEPTS: Punishment: Weakens or reduces the likelihood of a behavior Positive Punishment Negative Punishment: Negative Punishment: Removing Positive Punishment: Adding something something pleasant to decrease behavior. unpleasant to decrease behavior. Example: Taking away a toy when a Example: Giving a parking ticket to child misbehaves. discourage illegal parking REINFORCERS Primary Reinforcer Naturally reinforcing - don’ t need to be learned they’ re things we find rewarding right from the start because they satisfy basic biological needs. Why they work: Primary reinforcers tap into our innate drives. These are things we’ re "wired" to respond to because they help us survive. Examples: Food when you're hungry. Water when you're thirsty. Sleep when you're tired. Pain or discomfort also acts as a primary reinforcer. Secondary Reinforcer Learned reinforcers - don’ t naturally satisfy biological needs but become reinforcing through their association with primary reinforcers. In other words, we learn to value them because they can help us get things we naturally desire. Why they work: Secondary reinforcers get their power through conditioning. They become important because we link them to primary reinforcers or other meaningful things. Examples: Money: By itself, money doesn’ t satisfy hunger, thirst, or any biological needs, but we’ ve learned that it can be used to buy food, water, shelter, etc. Praise: Compliments or approval from others don’ t directly fulfill biological needs, but they often lead to social acceptance, which we value. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Most behavior is rewarded on a partial/intermittent schedule of reinforcement: 4 partial schedules of reinforcement- Fixed Ratio- reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses; Variable Ratio- reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses; Fixed Interval- reinforcement occurs after a fixed time has elapsed; Variable Interval- reinforcement occurs after a varied amount of time has elapsed; SHAPING: Shaping - training in small steps Technique used in operant conditioning where you gradually teach a new behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. Instead of expecting the complete behavior to occur right away, you reward small steps that get closer and closer to the final goal. How it Works: Think of shaping as the art of breaking down a complex behavior into smaller, achievable actions. You reinforce (reward) each step along the way until the full behavior is learned. 3. COGNITIVE-SOCIAL LEARNING is a way of learning that combines thinking (cognitive processes) and observing others (social influence). this type of learning doesn’ t just rely on direct rewards or punishments; instead, it involves learning through watching others, understanding the results of their actions, and deciding whether to imitate their behavior. KEY IDEAS IN COGNITIVE-SOCIAL LEARNING: 1. Observational Learning: We learn by watching others. For example, a child learns to tie their shoes by watching a parent or an older sibling do it. 2. Modeling: The process of imitating the behavior of others. People often model their behavior after someone they admire or see as successful, such as a teacher or a mentor. ALBERT BANDURA’ S BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT Psychologist Albert Bandura conducted an experiment where children watched adults interact with a Bobo doll. Those who saw the adults behaving aggressively toward the doll were more likely to act aggressively themselves, showing that they had learned the behavior by observing. Bandura’ s theory emphasizes that we are active learners FOUR KEY PROCESSES IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 1. Attention: First, the observer needs to pay attention to the model. This means that the model’ s behavior has to stand out in some way to grab the observer’ s focus. 2. Retention: The observer must remember what they’ ve seen. For example, a nursing student might watch a senior nurse handle a difficult patient and remember those techniques for later. 3. Reproduction: The observer must be able to reproduce the behavior. A student might observe a nurse using a specific technique and later try it out themselves. 4. Motivation: Finally, the observer must want to imitate the behavior. This motivation often comes from seeing the consequences of the behavior, like praise, success, or approval. INSIGHT LEARNING, COGNITIVE MAPS, AND LATENT LEARNING - emphasize the role of internal mental processes in learning, rather than just focusing on direct experiences or rewards. INSIGHT LEARNING A senses when a solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear, often through a moment of realization rather than through trial and error. It’ s a “lightbulb moment” when you understand something all at once. The “aha” moment. Kohler’ s chimps demonstrated insight learning- sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution. EXAMPLE IN DAILY LIFE “ You’ re trying to hang a picture on the wall but realize that you don’ t have a hammer. After a few minutes of frustration, you suddenly think of using the back of a sturdy wrench as a substitute. This creative solution didn’ t come from trial and error but from a flash of insight about how to repurpose the tools you have available” A COGNITIVE MAP A mental representation of spatial layout or any complex structure we are trying to understand. This concept was demonstrated in psychologist Edward Tolman’ s studies with rats in mazes. The rats developed an internal map of the maze, helping them navigate it even when they weren't directly rewarded for doing so. EXAMPLE IN DAILY LIFE When you walk through a new building or neighborhood several times, you develop a mental layout of the space. This cognitive map allows you to find your way without always needing a GPS or directions LATENT LEARNING A type of learning that isn’ t immediately obvious; it remains “hidden” until a need for it arises. It was also demonstrated by Tolman’ s rat experiments, where the rats didn’ t show any evidence of learning the maze until there was a reward (food) at the end, revealing that they had learned it all along. It is often subconscious, unintentional learning that has no immediate use, reward, or deterrent. It’ s a process your brain uses to perceive and map out the environments around you. EXAMPLE IN DAILY LIFE Imagine you’ ve driven the same route to work or school One day, when your friend is unavailable, you find that you know the way on your own, even though you hadn’ t actively tried to learn it. You absorbed the route over time without consciously thinking about it. THE BIOLOGY OF LEARNING Neuroscience and Learning: When we learn something, this experience creates new synaptic connections and alterations in many brain structures Our brain actually adapts based on what we experience, practice, and understand.  NEURONS AND SYNAPSES Neurons are the cells responsible for processing and transmitting information in the brain. Synapses are the tiny gaps between neurons through which they communicate. Learning strengthens certain synaptic connections, which makes it easier to recall and perform skills in the future.  LEARNING AND BRAIN STRUCTURES Different brain regions are involved in learning. For example, the hippocampus plays a significant role in forming new memories, while the cerebellum is crucial for learning motor skills and coordination. Example: When you learn to drive, your hippocampus helps you remember rules of the road and directions, while your cerebellum helps you coordinate movements like steering and pressing the pedals.  MEMORY SYSTEMS Neuroscience identifies different types of memory systems: Short-term memory (temporary holding area for information), Working memory (used for problem-solving or reasoning), and Long-term memory (where knowledge is stored for extended periods). Example: When you memorize a phone number briefly to dial it, you use short-term memory. When you remember a close friend ’ s birthday every year, that’ s long-term memory at work.  NEUROPLASTICITY  the brain’ s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to learning, experiences, or even injury.  explains how learning and memory shape and physically change the brain.  Example: If someone learns to play the piano, neuroplasticity allows the brain to build and strengthen pathways related to finger movement, timing, and auditory processing, making the skill smoother and more automatic over time. NEUROSCIENCE AND LEARNING IN DAY-TO-DAY LIFE 1. Learning a New Skill or Habit - Repetition strengthens connections in related brain regions, leading to improved skills and smoother execution. 2. Breaking a Bad Habit - weakening or overriding these connections. Neuroscience shows that practicing alternative actions can help rewire the brain to prefer healthier behaviors. 3. Studying Techniques and Memory Retention - Spaced repetition (reviewing information over increasing intervals) is effective for long-term memory. Techniques like visualization and association also create stronger connections in the brain, aiding memory. 4. Emotional Impact - Positive emotions can enhance memory, while stress can interfere with it. For example, feeling safe and encouraged in a learning environment boosts focus and information retention. 5. Mindfulness and Stress Management - Practicing mindfulness and stress management can improve learning by reducing the effects of stress on the brain. Chronic stress can impair brain function and make learning more difficult, while mindfulness helps to calm the brain and focus attention THANK YOU