FEU RMT Ethics - The Moral Agent PDF

[Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales...

[Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) ETHICS – 02 THE MORAL AGENT → a symbolic communication. some of its symbols include a group's skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, i. Culture in Moral Behavior and motives. the meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated - in a society I. Culture: Some Definitions through its institutions Defined broadly, therefore, culture includes all the → is all around us things individuals learn while growing up among → appears to be an actual part of our social life as well particular group: attitudes, standards of morality, as our personality rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language, → quality that some people have more than others – notions about the proper way to live, beliefs about how ‘cultured’ somebody is depends on some how females and males should interact, ideas how the factors like status, class, education, taste in music world works and so forth. We call this cultural or film, and speech habits knowledge. → by attending symphonies, plays, operas, and poetry readings, some show that they ‘appreciate II. Culture’s Role in Moral Behavior culture’ more than others - → a culture is a ‘way of life’ of a group of people → sometimes, people visit places like museums or art → this so-called ‘way of life’ actually includes moral galleries to increase their “cultural awareness” values and behaviors, along with knowledge, → probably, you have heard somebody in the ‘cultural beliefs, symbols that they accept, “generally elite’ bemoan the deplorable ‘popular culture’ of TV, without thinking about them, and that are passed graphically violent computer games, mass-marketed along by communication and imitation from one movies, pierced navels, tattoos, and rock or rap music generation to the next “(Culture definition, n.d.) → Culture is learned as children grow up in society → is so complex that it is not easy to define and discover how their parents and others around → is used to denote that which is related to the arts them interpret the world and humanities → Many aspects of morality are taught → in a broader sense, culture denotes the practices, → People learn moral and aspects of right or wrong beliefs, and perceptions of a given society - from transmitters of culture: respective parents, → is often opposed with ‘savagery’ – being ‘cultured’ teachers, novels, films, and television is seen as a product of a certain evolvement from → Observing or watching them, people develop a set a natural state idea of what is right and wrong, and what is → the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, acceptable and what is not beliefs, values, attitudes, meaning, hierarchies, → It -is improbable, if not impossible, to live in a religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, society without being affected by its culture concepts of the universe and material objects and → It is hard to grow up in a particular culture without possessions acquired by a group of people in the being impacted by how it views morality or what course of generations through individual and is ethically right or wrong group striving → Anthropologically speaking, culture – including → consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for moral values, beliefs and behavior – is learned behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, from other people while growing up in a particular constituting the distinctive achievement of human society or group; is widely shared by the members groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the of that society or group; and so profoundly affects essential core of culture consists of traditional the thoughts, actions, and feelings of people in ideas and especially their attached value; culture that group that “individuals are a product of their systems may, on the one hand, be considered as culture” and “learning a culture is an essential products of action, on the other hand, as part of human development” conditioning influences upon further action Social learning -acquire knowledge From Others → sum total of the learned behavior of a group of → Is the process by which individuals acquire people that are generally considered to be the knowledge from others in the groups to which tradition of that people and are transmitted from they belong, as a normal part of childhood & generation to generation → cultivated behavior in its broadest sense; that is, the Enculturation or socialization totality of a person's learned, accumulated → The process by which infants and children me experience which is socially transmitted, or more socially learn the culture, including morality, of briefly, behavior through social learning those around them “The only think that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) individuals are a product of their culture b) Theories Analyzed learning a culture is an essential part of ▪ Just because somethings is learned at human development homes and schools does not necessarily mean that it is a social III. ‘Moral Standards as Social Convention’ and convention the Social Conditioning Theory ▪ Mathematical operations, geographical facts, and scientific laws → ‘Social convention’ and ‘social conditioning’ are also taught in those institutions, yet theories – views are upshot of the fact that we can they are never considered as mere learn morality culturally or through socialization human fabrications (whether or not a) Theories Explained people know and like them, they are as ▪ Moral laws (moral standards or rules), they are) some purport, are nothing but just social - ▪ Some of the things we learn from our conventions - teachers, parents, siblings, are mere ▪ Convention – those things agreed > upon convention – which might have been - by people like through their authorities different done within ▪ Convention – usual or customary ways PHILIPPINES: People are taught to keep to a group through which things are done within a the right of the road group - - ▪ Since it is observed that morality is SOME OTHER COUNTRIES: People are something that is handed down to us taught to keep to the left of the road primarily by education or socialization, ▪ Many of the things taught in schools and either through parents and elders or through homes, like mathematics, are real teachers, some believe that moral stands truths and not mere conventions. are merely a human invention, like those other conventions we learn from school or C.S. Lewis offers two reasons for saying that morality - home belongs to the same class as mathematics: ▪ Essentially, to theorize that moral law is a social convention is to say that it is 1. Although there are differences between the something which human beings had just moral ideas of one time or country and those made up for themselves and might have of another, the differences are not really very been different had they liked great. Nations or cultures only have slightly ▪ Some submit that morality is nothing but different moralities but not quite different ones. an effect of social conditioning Essentially, we can recognize the same moral law ▪ Moral consciousness or the feeling that running through them all. It is thus concluded that we are - obliged to act morally, some moral law is not among the class of mere atheists, like Richard Robinson, maintain that conventions – for conventions, like the rule of the it is nothing but an outcome of social road or the kind of clothes people wear, are conditioning observed to be differing almost completely. ▪ An Atheist’s Values: “The original conscience 2. We affirm that the morality of e one people n is of an individual in any given society is a better or worse than that of another, which historical accident, the result of the means that there is a moral standard or rule influences to which he has been subject. It is by which we measure both moralities and that a set of taboos and compulsions, acquired standard is real. For instance, New Testament’s from his associates in the same unreflecting morality can be said to be far better than Nazi way as all his other taboos and compulsions” morality. In cold-blooded murder of between 5.6 ▪ The demands of conscience are also due million and 5.9 million European Jews. to society ▪ Changes in people’s morality have been e of certain ▪ As society expresses disapproval deemed as improvements, because if not, then actions, people, especially children, are said - to become aware of the weight of the there could never be any so-called moral e reproof or contempt - progress. ▪ Progress means positive development or - ▪ Little by little, people allegedly begin to - exercise their disapproval of those acts development toward achieving a goal or n e e - ▪ The feeling of dissatisfaction, reaching a higher standard -proponents say, develops into a habit that functions ▪ Moral progress – mean Annot just changing, but as the conscience when one considers changing for the better carrying out those actions “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) ▪ Now, if no set of moral ideas were truer or better universal standard through which we can than any other, there would be no sense in evaluate the truth of moral judgments. preferring civilized morality to savage morality. - ▪ Moral relativism – different moral principles ▪ Reformers or Pioneers – people who tried to apply to different persons or group of change the moral ideas of their own age for individuals. the better; people who understood morality ▪ Claiming that various cultures have distinct better than others did. standards of right and wrong, it maintains too, that ▪ There is really such a thing as right, independent moral standards change over time even in the of what people think, and that some people’s same culture ideas are neared to that real right than others’ ▪ The relativist theory is very much compatible ▪ Moral law is not synonymous to mere social - with moral subjectivism. If the considered basis convention – it’s not something which each e is a given society, the relativist ideology is culture or society just happens to approve. typically referred to as cultural relativism. ▪ Social conditioning theory – when one says ▪ Cultural relativism that a particular action “ought” or “ought not” to be - → the most dominant form of moral done, he/she is not simply echoing social - relativism approval or disapproval. → defines ‘moral’ as what is ‘socially ▪ Although conditioned and influenced by his approved’ by the majority in a certain culture to adopt a particular course, feels the culture moral obligation to take an entirely different → it maintains that an act is ethical in a action. culture that approves of it, but ▪ Those who opted to go against the societal immoral in one that disapproves of it norms (if moral views are corrupted because of → cultural relativists place the notion of right the culture) are even considered as social in the folkways and consider the tradition reformer and moral model. as morality’s warrant ▪ The sense of moral obligation therefore, → cultural relativists base their moral cannot be squarely explained by social theory on the observation that conditioning societies fundamentally disagree ▪ We do not submit, nonetheless, that social - about ethical issues conditioning does not in any way affect our ethical → what is deemed moral within one group knowledge. As a matter of fact, we indeed learn may be totally despicable to the plenty of moral things from our society. members of the other group, vice versa ▪ But, it is basically our intellect which is nurtured → morality differs in every society as by the teachings of moral authorities. concepts of right and wrong vary from ▪ The intellect remembers what actions are culture to culture. moral and what are not, at least as prescribed ▪ We cannot resolve the ethical differences among by the society. Therefore, it is this intellect cultures using some independent standard which can be molded or socially conditioned, evaluation not the sense of moral obligation nor the so- ▪ According to the theory, there is no universal called conscience per se. truth in ethics; that is, there are no moral truths ▪ The role played by our intellect in our moral that hold for all peoples at all times decisions explains how social conditioning ▪ Various cultural codes or customs are all that somehow affects one’s concept of morality. exist, and nothing more. Allegedly, there is no Ultimately nonetheless, ethical decisions are unconventional yardstick in ethics because supposed to be made in relation to something every standard is culture-bound not itself due to social conditioning but due to ▪ Defining morality as a product of culture, the some sort of moral law that presses down one theory submits that there are no objective every person. - values and ethics is merely a societal - IV. Cultural Relativism in Ethics convention. For them, the moral code of our - own - society has no special status; it is merely ▪ Cultural relativism is perhaps the most famous one among many. form of moral relativism, a theory in ethics V. Cultural Relativism: An analysis which holds that ethical judgments have their - origins either in individual or cultural a. Valuable lessons from ethical relativism - standards. - → Moral relativism encourages tolerance ▪ Moral relativism – no act is good or bad ▪ without a doubt, tolerance is necessary objectively, and there is no single objective for people of different cultural origins to co-exist and live peacefully in a society. “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) → The theory teaches us to be open-minded ▪ the theory is essentially inconsistent for ▪ being more open to discovering the one cannot support relativism with a truth non-relative statement. ▪ by stressing that our moral views can ▪ therefore, any ethical theory which reflect the partiality of our tradition, the explicitly proposes that morality is theory makes us understand that our relative is basically unsound and feelings and beliefs do not necessarily untenable reflect the truth – they may be mere products of cultural conditioning c. Rachel’s evaluation of cultural relativism → Cultural relativism positively warns against - → the late philosophy of prof. James Rachel made being judgmental a compelling assessment of Cultural Relativism. ▪ Reminds us that some of our beliefs Because the theory attains widespread and practices are mere conventional, prominence, it would help a lot to consider and thus not absolutely and Rachel’s comprehensive evaluation of this exclusively correct. - ethical system ▪ Nonetheless, the theory errs hastily assuming that all our practices are mere 1) The Cultural Differences Argument cultural products → Cultural relativists’ approach is to argue b. The theory’s ethical faults from facts about the differences between cultural outlooks to a conclusion about the → Cultural relativism discourages analytical status of morality. Thus, we are invited to thinking and independent decision-making in accept reasoning like these: ethics ▪ The Greeks believed it was wrong to ▪ it requires unsuspecting compliance eat the dead, whereas the Callatians and subscription to social norms (an Indian tribe) believed it was right ▪ endorsing traditionalism, one is not to eat the dead. Therefore, eating the supposed to think for himself. dead is NEITHER objectively right ▪ the theory teaches that to be ethical, nor objectively wrong. It is merely A folkways and cultural norms should MATTER OF OPINION, which varies be followed uncritically from culture to culture → Logically, cultural relativism is inconsistent in ▪ The Eskimos see noting wrong with promoting tolerance while teaching that no infanticide, whereas we believe culture is morally superior or more infanticide as immoral. Therefore, progressive than other infanticide is NEITHER objectively ▪ the theory is self-contradictory because right nor objectively wrong. It is if we really do not believe that some merely A MATTER OF OPINION cultures were better than others, then which varies from culture to culture there would be nothing for us to “Different cultures have different moral codes. tolerate Therefore, there is no objective “truth” in ▪ being tolerant does not demand that morality. Right and wrong are only matters of we consider all practices, including opinion, and opinions vary from culture to racism and oppression, as morally culture.” acceptable ▪ Seemingly persuasive, it is → Practically, we would also have problems in nonetheless unsound because its seriously living out this ideology conclusion might still be false. ▪ in reality, we are members of various Notice that the premise concerns overlapping societies and organizations. what people believe but the An individual belongs to a particular race, conclusion assumes what really is country, province, city, religion, etc. the case. ▪ the problem lies in the fact that various ▪ From the mere fact that Greeks and groups do have differing values Callatians disagreed, does it follow → Moral relativism is fundamentally self- that there is no objective truth in the defeating matter? – it does not, for it could be ▪ “there is no absolutes” implies a claim for that the practice was in fact wrong an absolute principle and one of the two groups was simply mistaken. “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) ▪ Against cultural differences 3) The Case of Eskimos and Callatians argument, this counter-argument could be submitted: “People is some → In Sociology and Anthropology, the Eskimos are societies believe that the earth is flat, popular for killing perfectly normal infants, whereas Europeans hold that the especially girls. This makes them appear to Earth is roughly spherical. Therefore, possess significantly different values from ours there is no objective truth in → However, it is not that Eskimos have less geography. Belief in the shape of the affection for their children or less respect for earth is only a matter of opinion, and human life. An Eskimo family will always protect opinions vary from culture to culture its babies if conditions permit. But they live in a ▪ The argument above is obviously harsh environment where food is in short supply unsound because some societies that “life is hard, and the margin of safety small” might simply be wrong in their → An Eskimo mother can carry only one baby in her beliefs. Clearly, just because various parka as she travels so even in the best of times, societies disagree on something there are limits to the number of infants that a does not mean that there is no mother can sustain objective truth about that matter → Infant girls are more readily disposed ▪ Cultural relativism goes wrong in because of the following reasons by Rachel: drawing a sweeping conclusion ▪ the males are the primary food about an issue from the mere fact that providers – they are the hunters – and people disagree about it. it is obviously important to maintain a The theory thus fails because it derives a sufficient number of food providers substantive conclusion about morality from ▪ the hunters suffer a high casualty rate the observation that people disagree about – the adult men who die prematurely far ethical issues outnumber the women who dire early. Thus, if male and female infants survive 2) The Disagreements among Cultures in equal numbers, the female adult population would greatly outnumber the → Cultural relativism capitalizes on the male adult population observation that cultures differ dramatically → In Eskimo’s very special case, infanticide is in their views of right and wrong. But just how thus a recognition that drastic measures are much do they differ? sometimes needed to ensure the family’s ▪ The difference lies in belief systems, survival not in values. → Take note, too, that killing the baby is not the ▪ “We agree that we shouldn’t eat first option considered. As reported, adoption Grandma; we simply disagree about is common and killing is only the last resort. whether the cow is (or could be) “There is a need to emphasize this in order to Grandma” show that the raw data of the anthropologists can ▪ There are many factors which work be misleading; it can make differences in together to produce the customs of a values between cultures appear greater than society. Aside from society’s values, they are. The Eskimo’s values are not all that there are religious beliefs, factual different from our values” beliefs, the physical circumstances in which people must live, and others. → Essentially the same can be said of the funerary ▪ Since the difference in customs may practice of the Callatians. As such, performing be because of some other aspects of such practice could be understood as a sign social life, then it’s wrong to conclude of respect. that there is a disagreement about “It could be taken as a symbolic act that says: values and morality just because we wish this person’s spirit to dwell within us” customs differ ▪ Therefore, there may be less ethical → As respecting the dead is generally shared by disagreements than there appears to many cultures, what Callatians therefore do to be their dead loved ones does not necessarily indicate a difference in values “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) d. The bad consequences of cultural relativism ▪ If the old ways were in accordance with the social standards of their → If we took cultural relativism seriously, we would time, they the theory would say it is a be necessitated to deal with the following mistake to judge them by the corollaries enumerated by Rachels: standards of a different time. The same applies to social reform. Jose 1) We could no longer say that the customs Rizal and Martin Luther King, Jr. who of other societies are morally inferior to have sought to change their societies our own. may not be necessarily regarded as ▪ Cultural relativism bans us from ‘reformers’ in cultural relativism saying that any of the practices (a society wing war on its neighbors for VI. Asian Moral Understanding the purpose of taking slaves or a society was violently anti-Semitic or → Because culture has a major impact on anti-Muslim and its leaders set out to morality, people from different cultures destroy the Jews or Muslims) was appear to have seemingly, but not essentially, wrong. Absurd enough therefore, different sets of ethics. This is particularly slavery, anti-Semitism, and the apparent in ethics of groups of people from the - like are immune from criticism Eastern or Asian culture as compared to those - under the theory. from the Western culture. 2) We could decide whether actions are right Eastern (Asian) Western ethics or wrong just by consulting the standards Protocol and showing of Finding truth of our society respect ▪ Cultural relativism suggests a Doing what is right in More of a stress on self simplistic test for determining terms of what is expected and what is rationally or what is right and what is wrong – of someone by his logically true one just needs to ask whether the family, society, and action is in accordance with the culture code of his society. One must do what is right More emphasis on law ▪ Rachel describes this implication of and expected of him and and justice cultural relativism as “disturbing the universe (or a because few of us think that our - metaphysical force) will society’s code is perfect; we can take care of the rest - think of ways it might be improved. Yet cultural relativism… would stop us from Western Ethics Eastern Ethics criticizing our own” 3) The idea of moral progress is called into Focus Finding Truth Protocol and doubt Respect ▪ Rachel mentions of the place of Basis Rational Thought Religious women in society throughout teachings most of history which was Emphasis Logic, Cause and Respect “narrowly circumscribed” – they Effect towards family could not own property; they could Roots in Athens, Rome and Hinduism, not vote or hold political office; JudeoChristianity Buddhism, and generally, they were under the Confucianism, almost absolute control of their and Taoism husbands. Recently, much of this Approach Rational Holistic and has changed, and most people Cultural think of it as progress. Conflict Good must triumph Good and Bad, ▪ But in cultural relativism, we and over Evil Light and Dark, cannot legitimately think of this as Harmony all exist in progress – there is no standard by equilibrium which we judge the new ways as better or progressive. “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) → As indicated in the table, the basis of Asian or ▪ Integrally, ‘hiya’ is related to the Eastern ethics is religion, specifically Eastern concept of ‘face’ and a concern with religions or philosophies. how one appears in the eyes of others → Confucianism – focuses on the cultivation of ▪ This unique Filipino concept ‘hiya’ or virtue and maintenance of morality ‘fear of losing face’ encompasses being ▪ ren – the most basic; an obligation of - afraid to do bad things as it may altruism and humaneness for other - damage one’s reputation in the sight individuals of other people ▪ yi – the upholding of righteousness ▪ A person’s capacity for proper - and the moral disposition to do good - behavior with authority figures is a ▪ li – a system of norms and propriety reflection of his or her family that determines how a person should upbringing and this fear of losing face ▪ Too much ‘hiya’ may lead to having - properly act in everyday life inferiority complex and losing self- - VII. Filipino Moral Character: Strengths and confidence Weaknesses c) Amor propio ▪ derived from the concept of face (like hiya) → Filipino cultural morality, especially that which ▪ although commonly translated as ‘self- concerns social ethics, centers on ideally respect’ or self-esteem, “amor propio” having a ‘smooth interpersonal relationship’ has been characterized as the high (SIR) with others degree of sensitivity that makes a → The definition of SIR in Philippine culture is person intolerant to criticisms and principally supported and anchored on at causes him to have an easily wounded least six basic Filipino values: the concepts of pride (1) pakikisama (2) hiya (3) amor propio (4) ▪ Some observe that “Filipinos learn to utang na loob (5) Filipino hospitality and (6) withstand a loss of face in some respect for elders situations, particularly when they perceive themselves to be at fault, but it a) Pakikisama is devastating to be publicly criticized, ▪ having and maintaining ‘good public insulted, belittled, or humiliated, or to relations’ lose one’s self-respect” ▪ usually being practiced to avoid clash with ▪ Comes from the person’s tendency to other people or a certain group protect his or her dignity and honor ▪ characterizes both a value and a goal that ▪ Because of pride or amor propio, a involves keeping good feelings in all person may refuse, for instance, offers personal interactions and getting along even if he or she really wants to accept with others, oftentimes, at all costs them ▪ can either work positively or destructively ▪ to elude open displays of conflicts, clashes, d) Utang na loob and confrontations, Filipinos, because of ▪ A fundamental aspect of upholding pakikisama, may submit to group group harmony and relationships that opinion, overgenerous praise on one demand the balancing of obligations and another, using metaphorical language debts rather than candid terms, concealing ▪ This involves the concept of reciprocity or negative feelings or unhappy spirits returning the received favor underneath a pleasant demeanor, ▪ The inability to repay the utang na loob smiling even when things go wrong, (debt of gratitude) usually makes a avoiding to say ‘no’ and refraining from person “walang utang na loob” or venting anger or losing temper “walang-hiya” ▪ We Filipinos believe that attaining SIR is ▪ To avoid being dubbed as “walang utang na much important that we may give up loob,” some Filipinos sometimes do things clear but offending communication that may be bad (like voting for unworthy candidate) just to return a received favor b) Hiya e) Filipino hospitality ▪ described as a feeling of lowliness, ▪ Innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be shame or embarrassment, and courteous and entertaining to their inhibition or shyness which is guests experienced as somewhat distressing “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) ▪ Indeed, generally speaking, Filipinos are → Giving value on (1) truth telling, for instance, is hospitable as they are internationally indispensable in the existence of a society, known to be warm, welcoming, and for without it there would be no reason to pay accommodating. This trait, however, attention to what anyone communicates with makes Filipinos prone to being abused or anyone. And because complex societies cannot maltreated exist without communication among their members, the very existence of these societies f) Respect for elders prove that truthfulness is valued in those ▪ We, Filipinos, are not only respectful to cultures. The very few situations in which it is elders, but also have unique ways of thought to be permissible to lie are more of expressing this respect to elders exceptions to the rule ▪ These include the use of po and opo when talking to elders and pagmamano or the → The case of (2) valuing or respecting life which putting of the elder’s hand to one’s necessitates the prohibition on murder. In a forehead society where no one thought there was anything ▪ When excessive, nonetheless, respect to wrong with killing others at will, everyone would elders make one dependent or have to be constantly on guard. Avoiding people irrationally obedient to parents or elders would become a mechanism for survival and large-scale societies would therefore be improbable → These Filipino social values are important to maintain harmony in Filipino relationships in → The general theoretical point here, Rachels social institutions such as family, school, and concludes, is that “there are some moral rules community that all societies will have in common, because those rules are necessary for society → The smooth interpersonal relationship, to exist. Cultures may differ in what they together with Filipino pakikipagkapwa-tao has regard as legitimate exceptions to the rules, been deemed as a central core of essential but this disagreement exists against a cultural traits that form and define an almost background of agreement on the larger stereotypic Filipino character and moral issues” behavior → Therefore, “it is mistake to overestimate the VIII. Universal Values amount of difference between cultures” In fact, not every moral rule can vary from society to society. This definitely flies in the → By universal values, we mean those values face of Cultural relativism. generally shared by cultures → The existence of the so-called universal values is a strong proof that cultural relativism is wrong ii. The Moral Agent → If certain values exist both in Western and Eastern cultures (including Filipino culture) Developing Virtues as Habit despite the distance the cultural relativism’s → Moral character refers to the existence or lack of claim that cultures’ moralities radically differ virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, from each other is mistaken honesty, and loyalty. To say that a certain person → Going back to the contention that Eskimos are has a good moral character means that he/she is also protective of their children, Rachel submits a good person and a good citizen with a sound the following sound argument: moral compass ▪ “Human infants are helpless and cannot survive if they are not given extensive A. Moral Character and Virtues care for a period of years. Therefore, if a group did not care for its young, the → Character – derived from the Greek word young would not survive, and the older ‘charaktêr’ which was initially used as a mark members of the group would not be impressed upon a coin. The word character replaced. After a while, the group would later came to mean a distinct mark by which die out. Therefore, any cultural group that one thing was distinguished from others, and continues to exist must care for its young. then chiefly to mean the assemblage of Infants that are not cared for must be the qualities that distinguish one person from exception rather than the rule” another → The same form of argument could be used to → This stress on distinctiveness or individuality reasonably show that other values must be tends to merge “character” with “personality” generally shared by many cultures in modern usage “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) → For instance, when thinking of a person’s → This goes to show that moral development idiosyncratic mannerisms, social gestures, or should also be understood in the sense of habits of dress, we might say that ‘he has human flourishing personality’ or that ‘he’s quite a character’ → This flourishing is attained by the habitual → The use in ethics of the word character, practice of moral and intellectual excellences, however, has a different linguistic history or ‘virtues.’ → At the beginning of Book II of the Nicomachean → In the context of developing morally which also Ethics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle tells us brings about self-realization and happiness, that there are two distinct human excellences acting in line with virtues is acting in (1) excellences of thought and (2) excellences accordance with reason of character → Indeed, philosophers like Aristotle hold that the ▪ Aristotle’s phrase for excellences of function of human being consists in activities (mortal) character, “ethikai aretai”, is which manifest the best states of his rational often translated as “moral virtue(s) and aspect, that is, the virtues “moral excellence(s). → Virtuous traits of character ought to be stable ▪ The Greek word "ethikos" (ethical) is and enduring and are not mere products of the adjective cognate with “ethos” fortune, but of learning, constant practice, and (Character). cultivation ▪ So, when we speak of a “virtue” or an → But we have to add that virtuous trait’s are excellence of moral character, the called excellences of the human being highlighting is not on mere because they are the best exercise of reason, distinctiveness or individuality, but on the which is the activity characteristic of human blend of qualities that make a person beings. In this sense, the Greek moralists believe, the sort of ethically admirable virtuous acts complete or perfect human life individual they are. → Nonetheless, the Greek philosophers think that Moral character – in philosophical sense, refers to it takes someone of goof moral character to having or lacking moral virtue. If one lacks virtue, determine with regularity and reliability what he/she may have any of the moral vices, or he/she individual acts are appropriate and may be marked by a condition somewhere in reasonable in certain situations and that it between virtue and vice, such as continence or takes someone of good moral character to incontinence decide with regularity and reliability how and Moreover, philosophers usually think that moral when to secure goods and resources from character traits, unlike other personality or himself or herself and others. psychological traits, have an irreducibly evaluative → Aristotle thus states that, it is not easy to define dimension; that is, they involve a normative in rules which acts deserve moral praise and judgment. The agent is morally responsible for blame, and that, these matters require the having the moral character trait itself or for the judgment of the virtuous person, that is outcome of the trait. Hence, a certain moral someone with good moral character character trait is a trait for which the agent is morally responsible C. Moral Characters as Dispositions Virtue – behavior showing high moral standards → The moral character traits that constitute a person’s moral character are B. The Circular Relation of Acts and Character characteristically understood as behavioral and affective dispositions - - → In the process of moral development, there is → Dispositions – are particular kinds of the circular relation between acts that build properties or characteristics that objects can- character and moral character itself possess. In the physical world, examples of - → Not all acts help to build moral character, but dispositions include the elasticity of a rubber those acts which emanate from moral characters band, the solubility of a sugar-cube in water, the certainly matter in moral development. Hence, fragility of porcelain, and the magnetism of a there appears the apparent circular relationship lodestone between individual acts and moral character. → Among human beings, moral character traits – → A person’s actions determine his or her moral either virtues or vices – are also considered character, but moral character itself dispositions generates that help in developing either virtue → Moral character traits are those dispositions or vice of character for which it is suitable to holds agents morally responsible “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) Virtue a moral character trait for which a person is Level 3 – Post-conventional morality deserving of a positive reactive attitude, such ▪ Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights as praise or gratitude ▪ Stage 6. Universal Principles Vice Table from book a moral character trait for which the agent is deserving of a negative reactive attitude, such LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY as resentment or blame ✓ AGE RANGE → In other words, a good moral character is o Seen in preschool children, most practically a disposition to do virtuous acts. elementary school students, some junior high school students, and a few - → Oppositely, bad moral character is, in effect, a disposition to do- vicious deeds high school students STAGE D. Six Stages of Moral Development o Stage 1: Punishment-avoidance and obedience → The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg NATURE OF MORAL REASONING is best known for his theory of stages of moral o People make decisions based on what development is best for themselves, without regard → In principle, he agreed with the Swiss clinical for other’s needs or feelings. They psychologist Jean Piaget’s theory of moral obey rules only if established by more development but wanted to develop his ideas powerful individuals; they may further disobey if they aren’t likely to get → Kohlberg employed Piaget’s storytelling caught. “Wrong behaviors are those technique to tell stories involving moral that will be punished dilemmas. In each case, he offered an option to be considered, for instance, between the rights STAGE of some authority and the needs of some o Stage 2: Exchange of Favors deserving person who is being unfairly treated. NATURE OF MORAL REASONING → One of his best-known stories concerns a o People recognize that others also man called Heinz (story: page 40, ethics book) have needs. They may try to satisfy → By analyzing the answers from children of various others’ needs if their own needs are ages to the questions (written in the book), also met (“you scratch my back, I’ll Kohlberg hoped to discern the ways in which scratch yours.”) They continue to moral reasoning developed as individuals define right and wrong primarily in grew older. He was more interested on the terms of consequences to themselves reasons provided for the decision rather than - if they judged the action right or wrong. He LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY discovered that the reasons tended to change ✓ AGE RANGE as the children go older o Seen in a few older elementary school → He pointed out three distinct levels of moral students, some junior high school reasoning each with two sub stages - students, and many high school composing his so-called six stages of moral students (Stage 4 typically does not development. appear until the high school years) → He believed that people can only pass through STAGE these levels in the order listed. Each new o Stage 3: Good boy/girl stage replaces the kind of reasoning typical of the previous stage. Some do not achieve all NATURE OF MORAL REASONING the stages. o People make decisions based on what actions will please others, especially Level 1 – Pre-conventional morality authority figures and other individuals ▪ Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment - - - with high status (e.g., teachers, Orientation - popular peers). They are concerned ▪ Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange > about maintaining relationship through sharing, trust, and loyalty, Level 2 – Conventional morality and they take other people’s ▪ Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships - - perspective and intentions into ▪ Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order e - account when making decision. “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) STAGE a) Stage 1: Respect for power and punishment o Stage 4: Law and order ▪ A young child aged 1-5 NATURE OF MORAL REASONING ▪ Chooses what to do – what is right – o People look to society as a hole for according to what he or she wants to guidelines about right and wrong. do and can do without getting into They know rules are necessary for trouble keeping society running smoothly and ▪ In this level, to be right, one ought to be believe it is their “duty” to obey them. obedient to the people in power, and However, they perceive rules to be thus, avoid punishment inflexible; they don’t necessarily ▪ “MIGHT MAKES RIGHT” recognize that as society’s needs change, rules should change as well b) Stage 2: Looking out for #1 LEVEL 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY ▪ Children aged 5-10 ▪ Are disposed to be egotistic or self- ✓ AGE RANGE serving o Rarely seen before college (Stage 6 is ▪ They lack respect for others’ rights but extremely rare even in adults) may give to other on the assumption that STAGE they will get as mush or even more in o Stage 5: Social contract return ▪ Instead of loyalty, gratitude, or justice, the NATURE OF MORAL REASONING case is more a matter of ‘you scratch o People recognize that rules represent my back and I’ll scratch yours’ agreements among many individuals ▪ “WHAT’S IN IT FOR ME” about appropriate behavior. Rules are c) Stage 3: Being a “Good Boy” or “Nice Girl” seen as potentially useful mechanisms that can maintain the ▪ People aged 8-16 general social order and protect ▪ Have shifted from pleasing themselves to individual rights, rather than as pleasing important others usually absolute dictates that must be obeyed parent, teachers, or friends simply because they are “the law.” ▪ They seek approval and thus conform People also recognize the flexibility of to someone else’s expectations. rules; rules that no longer serve ▪ When charged of doing something society’s best interests can and wrong, their behavior is likely to be should be changed justified by stating ‘everyone else is doing it’ or ‘I didn’t intend to hurt STAGE anyone’ o Stage 6: Universal ethical principle ▪ “I WANT TO BE NICE” NATURE OF MORAL REASONING o Stage 6 is a hypothetical, “ideal” stage d) Stage 4: Law and order thinking that few people ever reach. People in ▪ 16 years old and older this stage adhere to a few abstract, ▪ Majority have internalized society’s universal principles (e.g., equality of rules about how to behave all people, respect of human dignity, ▪ They feel indebted to conform, no commitment to justice) that transcend longer to just justify family and friends, but specific norms and rules. They also to society’s laws and customs. answer to a strong inner conscience ▪ They realize that it is important to do and willingly disobey laws that violate one’s duty to maintain social order their own ethical principles. ▪ Social leaders are assumed to be right and social rules are adopted without E. Getting to the Highest Level, Conscience- considering the core moral principles Based Moral Decision involved ▪ Thus, social control in this stage is → Another way to view Kohlberg’s stages, exercised through guilt associated with especially when combined with Piaget’s breaking a rule; though the guilt in this theory, is as follows: case is an automatic emotional response, not a rational reaction of conscience based on moral principles “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley  [Ethics] The Moral Agent Lecturer: Prof. Anna Gonzales Transcriber: Celeste Ann U. Andales 2nd Semester (1st Year - Block R) ▪ In this stage, individuals believe that ▪ Reaching this stage is thus seen, at least anyone breaking the rules deserves to in Kohlberg and Piaget’s theories, as be punished and “pay his or her debt getting to the highest level, to society” conscience-based moral decisions ▪ “I’LL DO MY DUTY” F. Problems with Kohlberg’s Theory e) Stage 5: Justice through democracy ▪ In this stage, people understand the underlying → It must be noted, nonetheless, that not all moral purposes that are supposed to be ethicists accept Kohlberg’s theory on moral served by laws and social customs development ▪ When a law in democracy ceases to serve a → Some argue that his mentioned dilemmas are good purpose, they thus feel the people ought artificial, that is, they lack ecological validity to get active and change the law → In Heinz dilemma, for instance, Kohlberg’s ▪ Democracy is seen as a social contract subjects were aged between 10 and 16, have whereby everybody tries constantly to never been married, and so not credible to construct a set of laws that best serves most answer whether or not Heinz should steal the people, while protecting the basic rights of drug everybody → Some say that Kohlberg’s sample is biased ▪ Respect for the law and a sense of obligation because his theory was based on an all-male live by the rules are present, as long as rules sample, and thus the stages reflect an were established in a fair manner and fulfill a androcentric or male definition of morality moral purpose → It is argued that men’s morality is basically ▪ It is said that only about 20-25% of today’s based on abstract principles of law and adults even reach this stage and most of those justice that do supposedly only get there after their → While women’s morality is based on mid-twenties. principles of compassion and care ▪ “I’LL LIVE BY THE RULES OR TRY TO CHANGE THEM” f) Stage 6: Deciding on basic moral principles virtue - in between by which you will live your life and relate to vice - if excessive & deficient everyone fairly moral virtues - right behavior There is an exemption in moral (?): babies and ▪ Rare people have evaluated many mentally unstable people values and have rationally chosen a sometimes, our personality (outside image) philosophy of life that truly guides contradicts with our character (inner image, u their life won't see unless u see it in her actions) ▪ Morally developed, they do not automatically conform to tradition or others’ beliefs, and even to their own emotions, intuition, or impulsive notions about right and wrong – Nothing follows – ▪ Individuals judiciously elect NOTE: fundamental principles to follow, such Black text – lecturer’s ppt content as caring for and respecting every Blue text – reference book Red text – lecturer’s discussion living thing, feeling that people are all Purple text – internet equal and thus deserve equal opportunities, or subscribing to the Golden Rule ▪ They are tough enough to act on their values even if others may think they are odd or if their beliefs are against man’s law, such as refusing to fight in a war ▪ Social control in this stage is exercised through guilt associated with the rational reaction of conscience based on moral principles “The only thing that will stop you from fulfilling your dream is YOU.” – Tom Bradley