Politics: Arena Vs Process PDF

SH1688 POLITICS: ARENA VS PROCESS ARENA APPROACH PROCESS APPROACH follows a formalistic conception of politics provides a comprehensive view of politics limits politics to the state and all its instrumentalities goes beyond what the...

SH1688 POLITICS: ARENA VS PROCESS ARENA APPROACH PROCESS APPROACH follows a formalistic conception of politics provides a comprehensive view of politics limits politics to the state and all its instrumentalities goes beyond what the narrow arena approach and related institutions, its hierarchy of offices and offers in order to understand politics and puts personnel, laws, and policies. premium on the activity of governing or governance, that is, how decisions are made and executed for a society covers activities and actions that are sanctioned by considers both the formal political arena and the the state, for example, elections. informal processes surrounding it, that is, the corridors of power associated with the narrow sense of political party does not only focus on elections and various legal and/or electoral politics. means of citizen participation and representation but also on organized protests, rebellion, and other activities that are outside the constitutional and legal framework. POLITICS Easton defined politics as 'the authoritative allocation of values for a society" (1953) and the study of politics as "understanding how authoritative decisions are made and executed for a society-' (1957). POLITICS AS ABOUT GOVERNING Government is the term generally used to describe the formal institutions through which a group of people is ruled or governed. The term extends to include the persons and organizations that make, enforce, and apply political decisions for a society. Governing includes institutions other than those of the government that are involved in governing, at least in the broadest sense. These other institutions can include labor and trade unions, corporations, universities, church organizations, social movement organizations that "are all involved in one way or another in setting rules or conventions (or seeking to do so) which govern some aspects of behavior of their members". POLITICS AS GOVERNANCE Governance is the general patterns and interlocking systems of governing across both public and private spheres by which the overall social, economic, and political life of a society is organized and managed, whether democratically or not, whether there are formal institutions or not, and whether done by national, international, or transnational agencies and institutions. Governance refers to the web of formal or informal institutions, rules, norms, and expectations which govern behavior in societies and without which the very idea of a human society is impossible. FUNCTIONS OF POLITICS A. POLITICS AS "THE AUTHORITATIVE ALLOCATION OF VALUES FOR A SOCIETY" From Easton's A Systems Approach to the Analysis of Political Life published in 1957, one can understand politics as a complex set of interactions between inputs and outputs, internal and external environments, feedback, and the political system. Inputs are demands and supports that are fed into the political system Outputs are decisions and policies that result out of the political system Demands can be anything that the citizens and groups in society would want or ask their governments to provide or to respond to. These could be demands for jobs or employment, better transport system, clean air and water, high wages, healthcare, education, etc. 01 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 1 of 5  SH1688 Supports take the form of a favorable political environment characterized by the presence of enabling laws and rules, openness of the political system, public support, etc. Environment can be both internal and external, shape how demands and supports get fed into the system and how the system processes them into decisions and policies. o Internal environment refers to the actual geopolitical, physical, and territorial boundaries of the state within which the political system belongs. o External environment refers to the confluence of foreign influences, forces, and dynamics that lie beyond the boundaries of the state. Political system has the right and discretion to screen demands and to process only the most urgent and salient, it cannot avoid being influenced by developments within and outside its own territory. Feedback loop serves as the means to communicate to the political system the response of the public or the larger society to the decisions and policy outputs of the government. B. POLITICS AS "WHO GETS, WHAT, WHEN, AND HOW" Politics functions like a battlefield or battleground where political actors try to subdue each other by any means to get what they want or the most of what they can get, either for public good or private gain. It is competitive such that some end as winners and reign supreme while others lose and join the ranks of the opposition or the mass. POWER AND THE THREE FACES OF POWER Political analysis is the analysis of the nature, exercise, and distribution of power 1. DECISION-MAKING: THE FIRST FACE OF POWER The first face of power approach involves a focus on behavior in the making of decisions on issues over which there is an observable conflict of (subjective) interests, seen as express policy preferences, revealed by political participation. The implication of this view of power is that "the most powerful actors in society are those whose opinion holds sway in the decision-making arena, whether a parliament, cabinet, or diplomatic negotiation". The powerful are able to get what they want, that is, make others to comply with what they want or prefer and consequently, make others behave accordingly. 2. AGENDA-SETTING: THE SECOND FACE OF POWER The second face of power approach argued that power is also exercised by being able to affect not just the actual decision outcomes but the very conditions from which decision outcomes arise. It is done by limiting the scope of the decision-making process to include only those issues which the powerful think should be brought to public deliberation. Analyzing power as 'agenda-setting requires one to determine the relative impact or influence of actors and their interests in influencing the process and outcome of decision-making. It includes the rational calculation of costs and benefits as well as of gains or losses by actors involved vis-a- vis other actors in determining those issues which can be subjected to public deliberation and those that are taken off from the formal decision-making arena. 3. PREFERENCE-SHAPING: THE THIRD FACE OF POWER Power as preference-shaping therefore identifies the powerful as those who are capable of subverting actual or 'real' interests of those over whom power is exercised. Such approach to power and political analysis emphasizes the power of actors, particularly the state, to shape and influence peoples' perceptions and interests through the operation of an ideological hegemony. Ideological hegemony in the context of the capitalist class system is defined as "the capacity of bourgeois ideas to displace rival views and become, in effect, the common sense of the age" 01 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 2 of 5  SH1688 POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES An ideology is a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides the basis for organized political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify, or overthrow the existing system of power. All ideologies therefore (a) offer an account of the existing order, usually in the form of a 'world view', (b) advance a model of a desired future, a vision of the 'good society', and (c) explain how political change can and should be brought about—how to get from A to B. FIVE MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES Political Ideologies Perspectives on the State Anarchism Rejects the state outright, believing it to be an unnecessary evil. The sovereign, compulsory, and coercive authority of the state is seen as a nothing less than legalized oppression operating in the interests of the powerful, propertied, and privileged. As the state is inherently evil and oppressive, all states have the same essential character. Socialism Has contrasting views of the state Marxists have stressed the link between the state and the class system, seeing it either as an instrument of class rule or as a means of ameliorating class tensions. Other socialists, however, regard the state as an embodiment of the common good and thus approve of interventionism in either its social- democratic or state-collectivist form. Liberalism Sees the state as a neutral arbiter among competing interests and groups in society, a vital guarantee of social order While classical liberals treat the state as a necessary evil and extol the virtues of a minimal or night watchman state, modern liberals recognize the state's positive role in widening freedom and promoting equal opportunities. Conservatism Links the state to the need to provide authority and discipline and to protect society from chaos and disorder, hence, their traditional preference for a strong state. However, whereas traditional conservatives support a pragmatic balance between the state and civil society, neoliberals have called for the state to be "rolled back" as it threatens economic prosperity and is driven, essentially by, bureaucratic self-interest. Fascism Particularly in the Italian tradition, sees the state as a supreme ethical ideal, reflecting the undifferentiated interests of the national community, hence their belief in totalitarianism. The Nazis, however, saw the state more as a vessel that contains, or tool that serves, the race or nation. Anarchism Anarchists oppose the state and advocate for the abolition of its accompanying institutions of government and law believing that a more natural and spontaneous social order will develop. For them, the state is evil and oppressive in its own right and therefore should be overthrown. Not only is the state abolished but all other forms of political authority and the conventional processes of government and machinery of the state including electoral politics. Socialism 01 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 3 of 5  SH1688 A central tenet of socialism is collectivism, that is, the belief in "the capacity of human beings for collective action, their willingness and ability to pursue goals by working together, as opposed to striving for personal self-interest". Socialists believe in utopian visions of a better society where individuals can achieve genuine emancipation and fulfilment as members of a community. They also believe in social equality as it upholds justice or fairness, underpins community and cooperation, and enlarges freedom in a positive sense; and because they likewise believe that human fulfilment and realization is based on need satisfaction. Liberalism Liberals favor openness, debate, and self-determination. They are also marked by their belief in the supreme importance of the individual and their commitment to individual freedom. For them, the central and defining principle within the liberal ideology is that of individual liberty or freedom which is a natural right of individuals. Liberals are also strongly inclined to believe in progress and equality. They also accept and celebrate moral, cultural, and political diversity. Nonetheless, liberals do not have consensus on some aspects of liberal ideology particularly on liberty and the role of the state. Conservatism Conservatives have been known to be resistant or opposed to change. They have also believed that the society is naturally hierarchical, hence social equality is unachievable. Their belief in hierarchy is accompanied by a strong emphasis on authority which is necessary to provide guidance, support, and security to the society. Conservatives believe in the importance of social order, and are suspicious of the attractions of liberty. Immoral and criminal behavior in society to conservatives is not a product of inequality or social disadvantages as socialists and modern liberals believe, but rather by human imperfection. Fascism Fascists are "anti-rational, anti-liberal, anti-conservative, anti-capitalist, anti-bourgeois, anti-communist, and so on". Rejecting almost all of the aspects of the western tradition, fascists defined freedom as "unquestioning submission," democracy as "absolute dictatorship," and progress as "constant struggle and war". Rejecting as well equality, fascists are deeply elitist and fiercely patriarchal. They believe that absolute leadership and elite rule are natural and desirable. The "leader principle" was widely accepted as a guiding principle of the fascist state, in Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler or in Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini. STATES, NATIONS, AND GLOBALIZATION Nations are commonly defined as cultural entities, that is, groupings of people bound together by shared values and traditions. They share a common language, religion, history, and usually occupy the same geographical area. Nation is primarily psychocultural. Exclusive concepts of the nation stress the importance of ethnic unity and a shared history. Inclusive' concepts of the nation highlight the importance of civic consciousness and patriotic loyalty, State is primarily a political-legal concept. It is a legally constituted entity which provides its citizens protection both from internal and external insecurity and aggression. A state has four essential' elements, namely, people, territory, government, and sovereignty. Among these four elements, sovereignty is the ultimate and defining feature of every state. People refers to those whom the state is obliged to protect and provide services to. They are the citizens who enjoy and exercise rights authorized by the state and mandated by the constitution and law. Territory refers to well-defined physical and geographic boundaries wherein the state reigns supreme and where the state's exercise of sovereignty is recognized both inside and outside these boundaries. 01 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 4 of 5  SH1688 Government refers to the formal institutions through which people are ruled. Sovereignty is the absolute or supreme exercise of power expressed either as unchallengeable legal authority or unquestionable political power. Globalization is described as the emergence of a "borderless world. It is the growth of supraterritorial relations between people as physical geography becomes less relevant. Globalization refers to the increasing interdependence of markets and production in different countries through trade in goods and services, cross-border flows of capital, and exchanges of technology. Thus, globalization results in an increase in the international division of labor, achieved by an international fragmentation of production. Economic globalization is characterized by the internationalization of markets, trade, finance, investment; privatization, deregulation and pro-market re-regulation; as well as rapid integration of trade, finance, and investment. 01 Handout 1 *Property of STI Page 5 of 5