Cognitive Neuroscience PDF

Reading 13 January 2024 19:52 Source Notes A recent field https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198786221.003.0001 Early Psychology: (Passingham, 2016) Dominated by Behaviourisms: Focused on stimuli and responses, ignoring internal processes. Mind deemed inaccessible: Research on rats and pigeons due...

Reading 13 January 2024 19:52 Source Notes A recent field https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198786221.003.0001 Early Psychology: (Passingham, 2016) Dominated by Behaviourisms: Focused on stimuli and responses, ignoring internal processes. Mind deemed inaccessible: Research on rats and pigeons due to ease of measurement. Philosophy offered no solution: Dualism (separate mind and brain) lacked explanatory power. Ryle's critique: Rejected dualism but left unclear what to say about mental processes. No study of the mind: Considered unscientific and inaccessible. Psychology focused on animal behavior: Easy to control and measure. Rise of Cognitive Psychology: Emergence of objective methods: Broadbent & Treisman's attention experiments. ○ Broadbent & Treisman's dual-ear tasks demonstrated information filtering Neisser on perception and Miller on memory: Further evidence for internal processing. Birth of "cognitive psychology": Studying the flow of information in the mind. ○ Investigating mental processes objectively. Black box models: Diagramming hypothetical internal processes and structures. ○ illustrating information flow in the brain Brain damage studies: Investigating the links between brain regions and function. Cognitive Neuroscience Takes Centre Stage: Gazzaniga and Miller coin the term: Blending cognitive psychology with neuroscience. ○ Linking mental processes to brain activity Studying brain damage: Identifying functions of brain regions. Imaging techniques revolutionize the field: PET and fMRI visualize brain activity in real-time. Explosion of fMRI research: Over 30,000 experiments conducted to date. Psychology transformed: Focus on understanding the human mind through brain activity. Focus on the human mind: Laypeople's intuition confirmed Brain scans commonplace: Visualizing cognitive processes a standard practice. The Nature of Brain Images Brain images are visually appealing and capture the interest of both laypeople and the media. Claims about brain imaging findings often make sensational headlines. Misunderstandings in Brain Image Interpretation Coloured patches in brain images don't directly represent increased neuron activity but rather changes in blood supply. Brain images result from a comparison between experimental and control conditions, similar to medical testing. Experimental Design in Brain Imaging brain imaging experiments involve comparing activations in experimental conditions with control conditions. Difference images (e.g., E − C) highlight activations specific to the task, removing unrelated activity. The Limitations of Brain Imaging in Determining Causes Brain patterns alone don't necessarily explain mental states or behaviors. Brain scans may show similar patterns in different mental states, questioning the direct link between brain activation and specific conditions. Caution in Interpreting Brain Images Brain images reveal the state of the brain during specific mental states but may not explain the reasons behind those states. Environmental factors and past experiences can play a significant role in mental states. Psychology Beyond Neurology The aim of psychology is to understand people as a whole, including their bodies and social environments. Psychological questions cannot be solely addressed by brain imaging; psychological experiments are necessary. Roles of Brain Imaging in Psychology Brain imaging can contribute to understanding human capacities, addressing questions about intelligence and multitasking. Brain imaging offers explanations for psychological effects of nervous system disorders, such as phantom limb sensations. The Challenge of Providing Explanations The book aims to provide explanations for psychological phenomena by understanding the activity of the human brain. Each chapter addresses questions, offering both background information and answers based on brain activity. Dynamic Nature of Scientific Facts Answers provided in the book are stated as facts, but it's acknowledged that scientific facts can change over time. Science seeks confirmation but also embraces novel discoveries. The Value of Brain Imaging in Psychological Research What is brain imaging? Measures brain activity during psychological tasks. Offers a new "measured variable" for psychologists to study. Different techniques exist, each measuring different aspects of brain activity (e.g., EEG, fMRI, PET). (Gonzalez & Berman, 2010) Benefits of brain imaging: Tests psychological theories: Can verify or refine existing theories about how the brain underlies thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Expands research possibilities: Enables new types of research questions that were previously difficult or impossible to address. Provides constraints: Helps rule out certain explanations and refine psychological models. PSYC0031 Cognitive Neuroscience Page 1 Provides constraints: Helps rule out certain explanations and refine psychological models. Sparks new ideas: Can lead to unexpected discoveries and new lines of inquiry. Limitations of brain imaging: Technical challenges: Images require complex pre-processing and analysis. Statistical issues: Large datasets with multiple comparisons require sophisticated statistical approaches. Interpretation difficulties: Relating brain activity to specific psychological processes can be challenging. Confounding factors: Environmental and physiological factors can influence brain activity and complicate interpretation. Using brain imaging effectively: Choose the right technique: Match the technique to the research question and brain function of interest. Design appropriate paradigms: Adapt paradigms to fit the limitations of the imaging environment. Interpret data cautiously: Don't overstate the meaning of brain activation patterns. Combine with other methods: Integrate brain imaging data with behavioral and other measures for a richer understanding. Future of brain imaging: Development of new technologies and analytical methods will improve resolution, reduce noise, and enable more precise interpretations. Integration with other disciplines (e.g., genetics, molecular biology) will provide a more comprehensive understanding of brain-behavior relationships. Focus on dynamic brain networks and their function will offer deeper insights into cognitive and emotional processes. What Neuroscience Can and Cannot Answer (Choi, 2017) The Rise of Neuroscience in Law: Neuroscience is increasingly used in legal cases, particularly those involving mental states and capacities. This trend is driven by the hope that neuroscience can provide objective evidence about the brain and its relation to behavior. Challenges and Limitations: Reverse Inference: Confusing brain activity with mental states. ○ Just because a brain area is active, it doesn't necessarily mean a specific mental state is present. Group-to-Individual Inference: Applying findings from groups to individual cases. ○ Brain defects may not always lead to impairments, and individual brains vary greatly. Lack of Large Normative Studies: We need more data on the prevalence of brain defects and functional impairments in the general population to make accurate individual predictions. Potential Benefits: Hypothesis Generation: Neuroimaging can identify potential brain abnormalities that warrant further investigation with other methods. Supporting Other Evidence: Neuroscience findings can complement and strengthen evidence from neuropsychological testing and behavioral analysis. Future Developments: Advancements in technology like optogenetics and CLARITY are improving our understanding of brain circuits. Increased computing power allows for detailed 3D reconstructions of brain tissue. Larger, collaborative studies like ABCD will provide valuable data on brain-behavior relationships in the general population. Neuroscience and Moral Judgments: While neuroscience can inform legal decisions, it cannot answer ultimate questions of culpability and desert. ○ These require human interpretation and consideration of cultural norms. Overall: Neuroscience has the potential to be a valuable tool in the courtroom, but it's important to use it cautiously and understand its limitations. Integrating neuroscience with other forms of evidence, such as behavioral analysis and neuropsychological testing, can lead to more comprehensive and accurate assessments. Ultimately, human judgment and consideration of cultural context remain crucial in legal decisions involving mental states and capacities. Principles of Cognitive Neuroscience (Dale Purves et Al) Sinauer Associates; 2008. Chapter 2: Relevant Principles of Cognitive Psychology (Purves et al., 2008) Major Themes: Understanding cognitive science through major psychological approaches: ○ Behaviourism: Focuses on observable behavior and stimulus-response relationships. ○ Information theory: Analyses cognitive processes as information transmission and processing. ○ Gestalt psychology: Emphasizes wholes and emergent properties in perception and cognition. Indirect measurements and model creation: Cognitive functions are inferred from behavior and brain activity. Exploration of key cognitive processes: ○ Perception: Sensory experiences and organization into meaningful representations. ○ Attention: Selectively focusing on relevant information. ○ Memory: Encoding, storing, and retrieving information. ○ Emotion and social cognition: Recognizing and responding to emotions and social cues. ○ Symbolic representation: Using symbols to represent abstract concepts and ideas. ○ Executive processing: Planning, decision-making, and problem-solving. Introduction Cognitive psychology studies internal mental processes that guide behavior. Major Themes in Cognitive Psychology A. Behaviourism: ○ Focuses on observable behavior and stimulus-response relationships. ○ Limited in explaining internal processes and motivation. B. Information Theory: ○ Analyses cognitive processes as information transmission and processing. ○ Quantifies aspects like capacity, speed, and efficiency. C. The Gestalt School: ○ Emphasizes wholes and emergent properties in perception and cognition. ○ Argues for the importance of organization and context. Indirect Measurement and Models Cognitive functions are measured indirectly through: Behaviour: Reaction times, accuracy, eye movements, etc. PSYC0031 Cognitive Neuroscience Page 2 ○ Behaviour: Reaction times, accuracy, eye movements, etc. ○ Brain activity: EEG, fMRI, PET scans, etc. Models are used to interpret data and explain cognitive processes. Exploring Cognitive Processes Perception: ○ Sensory systems: Vision, auditory, somatosensory, etc. ○ Object recognition: Building representations of objects based on features. ○ Attention: Selectively focusing on relevant information. Memory: ○ Encoding: Converting information into a usable form. ○ Storage: Long-term and short-term memory systems. ○ Retrieval: Accessing stored information. Emotion and Social Cognition: ○ Identifying and responding to emotions in ourselves and others. ○ Theory of mind: Understanding the mental states of others. Symbolic Representation: ○ Using symbols to represent abstract concepts and ideas. ○ Language, mental imagery, and other forms of representation. Executive Processing: ○ Planning, decision-making, and problem-solving. ○ Control and monitoring of other cognitive processes. Summary Cognitive psychology provides insights into the mechanisms and organization of mental processes. Understanding these principles is crucial for interpreting brain activity in cognitive neuroscience. PSYC0031 Cognitive Neuroscience Page 3