Respiratory and Integumentary Systems Physiology PDF

9/27/2023 Respiratory System FOX Chapter 16 © Stanbridge University 2023 1 1 ...

9/27/2023 Respiratory System FOX Chapter 16 © Stanbridge University 2023 1 1  9/27/2023 Objectives  Learn the main components of the respiratory system  Be able to describe the pathway of air into and out of the lungs, including the changes in pressure and what causes them  Understand the basic concepts of ventilation and perfusion  Describe oxygen transport in the blood, lungs and tissues  Describe the differences between carbon dioxide and oxygen transport  List the various neural controls of respiration © Stanbridge University 2023 2 2  9/27/2023 4 Process of Respiration Marieb, 2019 © Stanbridge University 2023 3 3  9/27/2023 Respiratory System Organs  Upper Respiratory Tract  Nose and nasal cavity  Paranasal sinuses  Mouth  Pharynx (throat)  Lower Respiratory Tract  Larynx (voice box)  Trachea (windpipe)  Bronchi (right/left) Marieb, 2019  Bronchioles  Alveoli 4 © Stanbridge University 2023 4  9/27/2023 Respiratory System Organs  Pharynx (throat)  Passageway for air and food  Connects nasal cavity and mouth to larynx and esophagus  Uvula prevents food from going up into nose © Stanbridge University 2023 5 Marieb, 2019 5  9/27/2023 Respiratory System Organs  Larynx (voice box)  Cartilage structure at top of trachea  Adam’s apple (thyroid cartilage)  Epiglottis - prevents food from entering  Vocal folds (voice production)  Trachea (windpipe)  Cleans, warms and moistens incoming air Marieb, 2019 6 © Stanbridge University 2023 6  9/27/2023 Vocal Folds and The Larynx © Stanbridge University 2023 7 Marieb, 2019 7  9/27/2023 Respiratory System Organs: Lungs Marieb, 2019 © Stanbridge University 2023 8 8  9/27/2023 Pleura and Pleural Cavity  Pleura: double layered serosa  Parietal: thoracic wall and superior side of diaphragm  Visceral: external lung surface  Pleural cavity: between these layers and contain pleural fluid © Stanbridge University 2023 9 9  9/27/2023 The Respiratory System  Lungs (2) – organs where gas exchange takes place  Heart is between the lungs  Left lung has an indentation that accommodate the heart and only has 2 lobes  Right lung is subdivided into 3 lobes © Stanbridge University 2023 10 10  9/27/2023 Air Passageway (Lower Respiratory Tract)  Trachea branch into → right and left primary bronchi (in right and left lungs) →  Lobular bronchi (each supply a lobe) →  More branching →  Bronchioles (< 1mm diameter) →  Terminal bronchioles ( H2CO3 -> H(+) + HCO3(-) If carbon dioxide levels rise… The body becomes acidic because of the hydrogen Ions in the blood This is what ultimately drives the control of respiration Increase in hydrogen ions decrease in pH and respiratory rate goes up © Stanbridge University 2023 40 40  9/27/2023 Blood pH  pH or the “potential of hydrogen”  Measures H+ concentration on 0 to 14 scale 0 being extremely acidic (a lot of H+) 7 being neutral  14 being extremely alkaline (no H+)  Body at rest is approximately 7.4 © Stanbridge University 2023 41 41  9/27/2023 Respiratory System in Acid-Base Balance  Hemoglobin functions as a buffer  Deoxyhemoglobin has greater affinity for H+  Hb + H+ → HbH  Bicarbonate ions as a buffer  HCO3– + H+ → H2CO3 → CO2 + H2O  Can regulate pH by regulating CO2 levels © Stanbridge University 2023 42 42  9/27/2023 Terms  Hypercapnea: when partial pressure of carbon dioxide rises in the blood  Hypocapnea: low carbon dioxide levels in the blood  Hyperventilation: increase in the rate and depth of breathing that exceeds the body’s need to remove carbon dioxide  Hypoventilation: insufficient ventilation in relation to metabolic needs  Hyperpnea: increased ventilation in response to increases in metabolic demands  Hypoxia: inadequate oxygen delivery to body tissue  Apnea: breathing cessation © Stanbridge University 2023 43 43  9/27/2023 Assessment of Learning © Stanbridge University 2023 44 44  9/27/2023 Integumentary System “The Skin” Chapter 5 © Stanbridge University 2023 45 45  9/27/2023 Objectives  Describe the various components of each of the layers of the skin and subcutaneous tissue  List the various glands and sensory receptors  Understand the functions of the skin  Understand the various types of burns and the Rule of Nine’s  List the affects of aging on skin © Stanbridge University 2023 46 46  9/27/2023 Intro to the Integumentary System  Integument means “covering”  Cutaneous = skin  Skin is the largest organ  1st line of defense  The integument is made up of 2 parts: 1. cutaneous membrane (skin) 2. accessory structures © Stanbridge University 2023 47 47  9/27/2023 Layers of Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (Marieb, 2019) © Stanbridge University 2023 48 48  9/27/2023 Layers of the skin  Epidermis:  outer most layer  very thin © Stanbridge University 2023 49 Marieb, 2019 49  9/27/2023 Epidermis  Contains a lot of keratin  Keratin: a tough protein  Deepest layer contains melanocytes  Melanocytes produce melanin  Melanin - pigment that gives skin its color and protects the skin from the sun  Irregular patches of melanin are called freckles © Stanbridge University 2023 50 50  9/27/2023 Epidermal Cells and Layers of the Epidermis 51 Marieb, 2019 © Stanbridge University 2023 51  9/27/2023 Layers of the skin  Dermis:  “the true skin”  middle layer  very elastic  many important structures: Sweat glands; oil glands Hair follicles Blood vessels Sensory nerves Marieb, 2019 © Stanbridge University 2023 52 52  9/27/2023 Layer below the skin  Hypodermis (Subcutaneous):  Technically not a part of the skin but has some protective functions, like the skin  connects skin to surface muscles  made of loose connective tissue and fat (adipose)  nerves, arteries, and veins run along the subcutaneous layer © Stanbridge University 2023 53 53  9/27/2023 Functions of Skin  Protection: chemical barriers, physical barriers, and biological barriers  Protects organs and structures of the various systems  Prevents pathogen invasion  Prevents dehydration  Body temperature regulation  Cutaneous sensation  Metabolic functions  Blood reservoir  Excretion  Has a homeostatic interrelationship with each system of the body © Stanbridge University 2023 54 54  9/27/2023 Accessory Structures of the Skin  Sebaceous (oil) glands  Sudoriferous (sweat) glands  Hair  Nails © Stanbridge University 2023 55 55  9/27/2023 Multicellular Exocrine Glands When categorized by secretion:  Oil or sebaceous glands: halocrine  Sudoriferous glands: sweat glands  Merocrine  Apocrine (controversial term in humans, may be merocrine in humans) © Stanbridge University 2023 56 56  9/27/2023 Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands Merocrine (eccrine) glands - produce body sweat (high protein) Apocrine glands – produce sweat in the armpits and pubic region after puberty (high salt) – Secrete sweat with organic materials (water, ammonia salts sugar) that is broken down by bacteria and produce Body Odor © Stanbridge University 2023 57 57  9/27/2023 Merocrine Glands Marieb, 2019, Chapter 4 © Stanbridge University 2023 58 58  9/27/2023 Additional Glands in the Skin  Specialized glands in the skin  Ceruminous glands (modified apocrine gland) located in the skin of the ear → ear wax  Tarsal glands (modified sebaceous) by eye  Oily secretion to prevent clumping of eye lashes and lubricates eyelid  Ciliary glands (Chapter 15)  Between eyelash follicles (modified sweat glands)  Mammary glands (specialized sweat gland)  located in the breasts → milk © Stanbridge University 2023 59 59  9/27/2023 Sebaceous (Oil) Glands Halocrine Glands  All over body except palms and soles  Become full until cells rupture  Secrete sebum (lipids and cell fragments)  Most secrete sebum into hair follicle or a pore  Softens and lubricates hair and skin, reduce water loss, bacterium-killing  Hormones stimulate secretion © Stanbridge University 2023 60 60  9/27/2023 Holocrine Glands (Marieb, 2019 Chapter 4) © Stanbridge University 2023 61 61  9/27/2023 © Stanbridge University 2023 62 Marieb, 2019 62  9/27/2023 Hair  Entire body is covered in fine hair  Except the following areas  palms; soles; lips, nipples, parts of external genitalia  Hair  made of protein keratin  not living  grows from living cells in a bulb or hair follicle  Melanocytes in the hair follicle secrete pigment that gives hair its color © Stanbridge University 2023 63 63  9/27/2023 Hair  Follicles fold down from the epidermal surface into the dermis  On the head they may even extend into the hypodermis © Stanbridge University 2023 64 64  9/27/2023 Hair Follicle Marieb, 2019 © Stanbridge University 2023 65 65  9/27/2023 Hair  Part extending out of follicle = shaft  Part inside follicle = root  Tiny muscle = Arrector Pili  contracts to raise hair (Goose bumps)  In mammals raised hair traps air in the coat to help maintain warmth  Makes animals appear larger when they are afraid © Stanbridge University 2023 66 66  9/27/2023 Function of Hair  Act as touch receptors  On head: reduce loss of body heat, protect from the sunlight, some physical trauma protection  Eye lashes: shield eyes  Nose hairs: filter out insects and large objects © Stanbridge University 2023 67 67  9/27/2023 Nails  Protect fingers and toes  Grasp objects  Made of hard keratin  Nail Root  under edge of skin  new cells continuously growing more nail  Nail plate  visible nail  rests on the nail bed  Pink due to capillary beds in dermis Marieb, 2019 68 © Stanbridge University 2023 68  9/27/2023 Chemical barriers  Skin surface contains many bacteria, but skin secretions (acid mantle) maintain low pH that limits multiplication  Dermcidin in sweat and bactericidal substances in sebum kill many bacteria  Skin secretes antibodies (definsins) that puncture bacteria  Wounded skin releases protective peptides that prevent infection of specific bacteria  Melanin is a chemical pigment to prevent UV damage © Stanbridge University 2023 69 69  9/27/2023 Physical barriers: Substances that can penetrate the skin in small amounts  Lipid-soluble substances: oxygen, carbon dioxide, fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K) and steroids (estrogens)  Oleoresins of certain plants (ex. poison ivy and poison oak)  Organic solvents: acetone, dry-cleaning fluid, and pain thinner, which dissolve the cell lipids  Salts of heavy metals: lead and mercury  Some drugs: nitroglycerine, seasickness mediations  Other drugs can move into the body through drug agents © Stanbridge University 2023 70 70  9/27/2023 Biological barriers  Dendritic cells: part of the immune system  Engulf foreign substances that pass through the epidermis, then travel to lymph nodes  Dermal macrophages:  Second line of defense  Dispose of viruses and bacteria that make it through the epidermis and trigger an immune response © Stanbridge University 2023 71 71  9/27/2023 Body Temperature Regulation  When external environment is cool:  Dermal blood vessels constrict, to conserve heat loss through the skin  When external environment is warm:  Normal temperatures → unnoticeable sweating  Warmer temperatures → noticeable sweating © Stanbridge University 2023 72 72  9/27/2023 Cutaneous sensation  Hair follicle receptors → movement on surface  Free nerve endings → painful stimuli  Tactile (Meissner’s) corpuscles and tactile epithelial cells → touch  Lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles (dermis and subcutaneous) → sense deep pressure © Stanbridge University 2023 73 73  9/27/2023 Metabolic functions  Sun → modified cholesterol converted to a vitamin D precursor → in other areas made into vitamin D which is necessary for calcium absorption in the digestive tract  Also contain enzymes that help conversions done in the liver © Stanbridge University 2023 74 74  9/27/2023 Blood reservoir  Holds about 5% of the body’s entire blood volume  When blood needed elsewhere → dermal blood vessels constrict → shunt blood away from skin to locations in need of more blood © Stanbridge University 2023 75 75  9/27/2023 Excretion  Sweat eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes (ammonia, urea, and uric acid) most secreted in urine though  A lot of sweating → water and salt loss © Stanbridge University 2023 76 76  9/27/2023 Burns  Burn = “tissue damage inflicted by intense heat, electricity, radiation, or certain chemicals”  denature proteins and kill cells in affected areas © Stanbridge University 2023 77 77  9/27/2023 Burns: Depth of Damage 1. Superficial/First Degree: involve limited damage to the epithelial cells without exposure of dermal tissue 2. Partial-thickness/Second degree: epidermis and upper dermis affected. Blisters present in addition to first degree symptoms 3. Full-thickness/Third degree: full skin: cherry-red, blackened, white- gray, Skin grafting is advised (fluid loss and infection) © Stanbridge University 2023 78 78  9/27/2023 Burns Marieb, 2019 © Stanbridge University 2023 79 79  9/27/2023 Body Surface Area Affected  Immediate threat to life: catastrophic loss of bodily fluids containing proteins and electrolytes  Rule of 9’s used to estimate fluid lost by % of body surface burned © Stanbridge University 2023 80 80  9/27/2023 Rule of 9’s: an estimation of burned area in adults  11 regions represent 9%  Head  Chest  Front Right Leg  Abdomen  Back Right Leg  Upper back  Left Arm  Lower back  Right Arm  Front Left Leg  Back Left Leg  Genitalia = 1% © Stanbridge University 2023 81 81  9/27/2023 Rule of Nines Marieb, 2019 © Stanbridge University 2023 82 82  9/27/2023 Example: A patient presents with a burn that covers both anterior legs, the groin, and the front chest and abdomen. According to the rule of 9’s. What percentage of the body surface area was burned? © Stanbridge University 2023 83 83  9/27/2023 Aging Skin  Rate of epidermal cell replacement slows  Reduction in lubricating substances produced  Elastic fibers clump, collagen reduces in number and becomes stiffer  Reduction in subcutaneous fat layer  Reduced number of melanocytes and dendritic cells  Reduction in number of hair follicles  Genes for baldness and gray hair turn on © Stanbridge University 2023 84 84  9/27/2023 Assessment of Learning © Stanbridge University 2023 85 85