UTS REVIEWER PRELIMS.docx

**CHAPTER 1** **LESSON 1** Our **names** represent who we are. A **name** is not the person itself no matter how intimately bound it is with the bearer. It is only a **signifier**. The **self** is something that a person perennially molds, shapes, and develops. It is not a static thing that one...

**CHAPTER 1** **LESSON 1** Our **names** represent who we are. A **name** is not the person itself no matter how intimately bound it is with the bearer. It is only a **signifier**. The **self** is something that a person perennially molds, shapes, and develops. It is not a static thing that one is simply born with. **The Greeks** - The earliest thinkers in the history of philosophy. - Seriously questioned myths and moved away from them in attempting to understand reality and respond to perennial questions of curiosity, including the question of the self. **Pre-Socratics** - What the Greek thinkers were collectively called prior to Socrates. - Used to denote that some of them preceded Socrates while others existed around Socrates' time aswell. - **Thales, Pythagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus,** and **Empedocles** to name a few, were concerned with explaining what the world is really made up of, why the world is so, and what explains the changes that they observed around them. - **Arché** - The primary substratum that explains the multiplicity of things in the world. - Tired of simply conceding to mythological accounts propounded by poet-theologians like **Homer** and **Hesiod**, these men endeavored to finally locate an explanation about the nature of change, the seeming permanence despite change, and the unity of the world amidst its diversity. **Socrates** - Was more focused on the problem of the self. - The true task of the philosopher is to **know oneself**, and this has become his **life mission.** - **Plato** claimed in his dialogs that Socrates affirmed that the unexamined life is not worth living. - **Socrates** wanted to let Athenians, young and old, to hypothesize about themselves and the world. - He reckons most men are not fully aware of who they are, and the virtues they are supposed to attain. - According to Socrates, the worst that can happen to anyone: **is to live but die inside**. **Plato** - Was a student of Socrates. - Supported the idea of his master, that man is dual by nature with body and soul. - He added the three components of the soul: **rational, spirited,** and **appetitive soul.** - The three components of the soul were declared by Plato, in his "*magnum opus*" **The Republic**. - According to his masterpiece, justice in the human person can be achieved if the three components work harmoniously. **Augustine** - His view of the human person reflects the entire **spirit world** of the medieval when it comes to man. - He adheres to Socrates' point of view on the duality of man and **infuses the newfound doctrine of Christianity**. - According to Augustine, the aspect of man dwells in the world and his imperfect being will seek to be with the Divine to reach immortality. - The body is bound to die and the spirit is to anticipate living eternally with great joy. **Thomas Aquinas** - A reliable scholar - Appended to a **Christian view.** - Man is composed of two parts, **matter** and **form**. - The **body** is part of the matter (***hyle**-*Greek) - **Matter** is all that makes up the universe - The **form** (***morphe-***Greek) on the other hand, refers to the substance of the thing. - The **soul** animates the body. It is what makes us humans. **Rene Descartes** - Considered humans having a **body and mind.** - Famous treatise, ***The Meditations of First Philosophy**.* He claims that there is so much we should doubt. - We can only believe the proposed situation if it passes the test. - If we are not certain of a thing it may turn out, to be **false**. - Much of what we think is not infallible. - The only thing that cannot be doubted is the existence of self. - His famous ***cogito ergo sum, "I think, therefore I am". The fact that one thinks, should lead to conclusion that he exists.*** - Viewed the self as a combination of two distinct entities. - The body is a machine attached to the mind. - What makes man a man is his mind. **Hume** - A **Scottish philosopher**, views man through experiences. - The self is **not an entity** over and beyond the physical body. - Men can only attain knowledge by **experience**. - Uses **human senses (special and general)** to attain knowledge. - The "self" is nothing else but a **bundle of impressions.** - The "self" is a collection of **different perceptions.** - The unified self is simply a **combination of all experiences** with a particular person. **Kant** - The self is a mere combination of impressions was **problematic.** - There is a need for the mind to **regulate** the impressions. - The minds build **ideas.** Kant called this "***apparatus of the mind***". - "Apparatus of the Mind" goes with the "self" - The "self" helps us to recognize the different impressions we acknowledge for our existence. - The "self" did not only provide us with personality but a seat of knowledge for all human persons. **Ryle** - What matters is the **behavior** that a person manifests in day-to-day life. - The "self" is not only an entity, it is the convenient name that people use to refer all the behaviors people make. **Merleau-Ponty** - A **phenomenologist**. - Asserts the **mind-body bifurcation**. - **Mind and body** are intertwined, and cannot be separated from one another. - Dismissed the *Cartesian* dualism. - To him, the body, thoughts, emotions, and experiences are **one.** **LESSON 2** **What is the Self?** **The self** is defined by the following characteristics: - **Separate:** the self is distinct from other selves. The self is always unique and has its own identity. One cannot be another person. Even twins are distinct from each other. - **Self-contained and independent:** because in itself it can exist. Its distinctness allows it to be self-contained with its own thoughts, characteristics, and volition. - **Consistent:** because it has a personality that is enduring therefore can be expected to persist for quite some time. It also means that a particular self's traits, characteristics, tendencies, and potentialities are more or less the same. - **Unitary:** it is the center of all experiences and thoughts that run through a certain person. - **Private:** Each person sorts out information, feelings and emotions, and thought processes within the self. It also suggests that the self is isolated from the external world. It lives within its own world. **The Self and External Reality** - The clash between the self and external factor is the reason for the self to have a clear understanding of **what it might be, what it can be, and what it will be.** - It is **ever-changing and dynamic**, allowing external influences to take part in its shaping. - The self is in a **constant interaction with external reality**, which challenges and reshapes its identity. This clash helps us understand who we are and who we can become. - **Social constructionists** argue for a **merged view of 'the person' and 'their social context'** where the boundaries of one cannot easily be separated from the boundaries of the other (Stevens 1996.) - The self **should not be seen as a static entity that stays constant** through and through. - The self is always in participation with social life and its identity subjected to influences here and there. Having these perspectives considered should draw one into concluding that **the self is truly multifaceted.** - The self is capable of **morphing and fitting** itself into any circumstances it finds itself in. **The Self and Culture** Remaining the same person and turning chameleon by adapting to one's context seems paradoxical. However, the French Anthropologist **Marcel Mauss** has an explanation for this phenomenon. According to Mauss, every self has two faces: - ***Moi*** - refers to a person's sense of who he is, his body, and his basic identity, his biological givenness. *Moi* is a person's sense of who he is. - ***Personne*** - is composed of the social concepts of what it means to live in a particular institution, a particular family, a particular religion, a particular nationality, and how to behave given expectations and influences from others. In the **Philippines,** many people unabashedly **violate jaywalking rules**. In **Singapore**, where there are strict traffic rules, you will notice how **suddenly law-abiding** the said Filipino becomes. Some men easily transform into **sweet, docile guys** when trying to woe and court a particular woman and suddenly just change rapidly after hearing a sweet **"yes."** **Filipinos** tend to consider their territory as a **part of who they are.** This includes considering their immediate surrounding as a part of them, thus the perennial **\"tapat ko. linis ko.\"** **In another country,** however, the Filipino recognizes that he is in a foreign territory where **nothing technically belongs to him.** He has to follow the rules or else he will be apprehended. **Language** is another aspect of this social constructivism. - The Filipino language is incredibly interesting to talk about. The way by which we articulate our love is denoted by the phrase, **\"Mahal kita.\"** - The Filipino brand of this articulation of love **does not specify the subject and the object of love; there is no specification of who loves and who is loved.** - There is no distinction between the lover and the beloved. **They are one.** - The word **mahal** can mean both **"love"** and **"expensive."** - In our language, love is intimately **bound with value.** Something expensive is valuable. - The Sanskrit origin of the word love is "***lubh,**"* which means desire. - Our Language is also **gender-neutral.** Our language does not specify between male and female. We both call it **"*siya*."** - **Language** has something to do with **culture.** It is a salient part of culture and ultimately, has a tremendous effect in our crafting of the self. **The Self and the Development of the Social World** - **Active Participation:** People actively shape their identities, not just through genetics or fixed traits. - **Social Interaction:** Identity is formed through interactions with family, peers, and society. - **Language:** Acts as the bridge between the individual and society, allowing for self-expression and the shaping of identity. - **Experiences & Environment:** Life circumstances and experiences significantly shape who we become. - **Identity is Fluid:** Our identities are not fixed but constantly evolve through ongoing interaction with the world. **Mead** - emphasizes that children develop their sense of self through **role-play**. - By acting out different roles with toys and creating dialogues, children **differentiate their own identities from others.** **Vygotsky** - focuses on how children **internalize real-life conversations** with family and peers. These interactions become part of their problem-solving and decision-making processes. **Self in Families** **Families** are the most prominent influences in understanding oneself. - The family we were born into, the resources available to us (spiritual, human, economic), and the way that we develop will certainly affect us as we grow older. - Humans are deeply **dependent on families** for survival and development, and families initiate individuals into the world of human relationships and behaviors. - **Without a family**, biologically and sociologically, a person may not even survive or become a human person. **Gender and Self** - **Gender** is an important aspect of the self, gender is one of the loci of the self that is the self that is the subject to alteration, change and development. - **Sonia Tolstoy,** the wife of the famous Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy, she wrote it when she was 21 ***"I am nothing but a miserable crushed worm; whom no one want, whom no one loves, a useless creature with morning sickness and a big belly two rotten teeth and a bad temper a battered sense of dignity and a love which nobody wants and which nearly drives me insane."*** - **Nancy Chodrow**, a feminist argues that because mothers take the role of taking care of children - The gender self is shaped within a **particular context of time and space.** - The sense of self that is being taught and makes sure that an individual fits in a particular environment. **LESSON 3** - **William James (1890)** was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self and conceptualized the self as having two aspects-the "I" and the "me." - The 'I' is the thinking, acting, and feeling self. - The 'me' is the physical characteristics as well as psychological capabilities that makes you who you are. (Gleitman, Gross, and Resiberg 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). - Carl Rogers' (1959) Theory of personality also used the same terms. - The 'I' as the one who acts and decides while the 'me' is what you think or feel about yourself as an object. - Identity is composed of personal characteristics, social roles, and responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define who one is. - Self-concept is what basically comes to your mind when you are asked about who you are. - Self, Identity, and self-concept are not fixed in one time frame. They are also not fixed for life nor are they every-changing at any moment. Carl Rogers captured this idea in his concept of self-schema or our organized system or collection of knowledge about who we are. The schema is not limited to the example above. It may also include your interests, work, course, age, name, and physical characteristics, among others. - Theories generally see the self and identity as mental constructs, created and recreated in memory. - The frontal lobe of the brain is the specific area associated with the process concerning the self. - **Sigmund Freud,** one of the most influential psychologists, saw the self, its mental processes, and one's behavior as the results of the interaction between the ***Id,*** the ***Ego,*** and the ***Superego.*** **LESSON 4** - The different perceptions of the \"self\" is cost by **cultures and environments** which may vary from one another. One of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the **Eastern-vs-Western dichotomy.** - **Eastern** represents **Asia** while **Western** represents **Europe and Northern America**. However, both distinctions and countries involved are driven by political philosophies and religious beliefs. **Social Behavior** - In Western countries, **individualism** is highly valued, and people tend to be more direct and assertive. - Eastern cultures place greater emphasis on **collective harmony**, and people tend to be more indirect and avoid conflict. **Lifestyle** - Western culture places a greater emphasis **on personal achievement, independence, and self-expression**. Western societies tend to be more fast-paced and individualistic. - Eastern culture places more emphasis on **family, community, and communal harmony.** As a result, Eastern societies are more relaxed and family-oriented. **Beliefs and Goals** - Western culture places a greater emphasis on **personal freedom, democracy, and human rights.** - Eastern culture values **social harmony, duty, and respect for authority.** **Time Orientation** - Western cultures are typically characterized by a **monochronic time perspective,** where individuals prioritize punctuality, efficiency, and task-oriented activities. - Eastern cultures, influenced by a **polychronic time perspective,** place greater emphasis on relationships, harmony, and flexibility. This can result in more fluid schedules and a greater willingness to adapt plans based on interpersonal dynamics. - Western societies, particularly those influenced by **Judeo-Christian traditions,** tend to have a more individualistic approach to spirituality, allowing for personal interpretation and diverse beliefs. - In Eastern cultures, religious practices are often deeply intertwined with daily life, emphasizing rituals, collective worship, and a strong connection to **ancestral traditions.** **Religious Beliefs and Political Philosophies** - **Confucianism** - an ethical code promoting **harmonious social life,** integrating an individual\'s identity with their community\'s status, emphasizing the importance of **sharing pride and failures.** - Confucianism views **self-cultivation as the ultimate purpose,** with ***chun-tzu*** characteristics embedded in social relationships. The cultivated self, or **\"subdued self,\"** is repressed for the good of many, maintaining order and balance. - **Taoism** - a philosophy that embraces a **free-flowing, relative, unitary, and paradoxical view of the universe,** rejecting the hierarchy and strictness of Confucianism. - It views the self as part of the universe and advocates for selflessness, balance, openness to change, and equality. This approach allows for spontaneous action without legal restrictions, promoting harmony with all beings and allowing for a harmonious life. - **Buddhism** - Buddhism views the self as an **illusion arising from ignorance and human-centered needs.** It emphasizes the quest to **forget the self, break attachments, and renounce the self** to attain Nirvana. - Confucianism and Taoism place the self within a larger context, striving to become a better person that benefits the community and harmony with nature. In Buddhism, **the self is removed from the whole picture**, focusing on harmony and benefiting the community. **Western Perspective** - **Western Perspective** does not discount the role of environment and society in the formation of the self but the focus is always **looking toward the self.** - The Western thought looks at the world in **dualities** wherein **you are distinct from the other person**, the creator is separate from the object he created, in which the self is distinguished and acknowledged. - **The Eastern perspective** sees the other person as part of yourself as well as the things you may create, a drama in which **everyone is interconnected with their specific roles.** - **Americans** talk more about their **personal attributes** when describing themselves while **Asians** in general talk about their **social roles** or the social situations that invoked certain traits that they deem positive for their selves. - **Americans** would highlight their **personal achievements** while **Asians** would rather keep a **low profile** as promoting the self can be seem as boastfulness that disrupts social relationships. - **The Western culture** is an **individualistic culture** since their focus is on the person - **Asian Culture** is a **collectivistic culture** as the group and social relations that is given more importance than the individual needs and wants. - **Westerners** have loose association or even loyalty to their groups, thus, **Competition** is more focused and are more likely straightforward and forceful in their communication and decision-making. - **Eastern** **or oriental persons** look after the welfare of their groups and values **cooperation.** They would also be more compromising and tend to go around the bush when explaining things, hoping that the other person would 'feel' what they really want to say. - **Westerners** emphasize **equality,** and also promote ideals that create 'fair' competition and protect the individual. - **Asians** put more emphasis on **hierarchy** as the culture wants to keep things in harmony and order. **CHAPTER 2** **LESSON 1** - **Marieb, E.N (2001)** explains that **gonads** (testes or ovary) begin to form until about the 8^th^ week of embryonic development. - During the early stages of human development, the embryonic reproductive structures of males and females are alike and are said to be in the ***indifferent stage.*** - The development of the accessory structures of the external genitalia begins when the primary reproductive structures are formed. - **Pseudohermaphrodites** - are individuals having accessory reproductive structures that do not 'match' their gonads. - **True Hermaphrodites** - Are individuals who possess both ovarian and testicular tissues but this condition is rare in nature. - A critical event for the development of reproductive organs takes place one month before birth. If this normal event fails, it may lead to **cryptorchidism.** This condition occurs in young males causes sterility. - Abnormal separation of chromosomes during meiosis can lead to congenital defects of the reproductive system such as: **Males who possess extra female chromosomes** have shrunken testes that causes him to be sterile. - Other much less serious conditions also affect males primarily such as **phimosis,** which is due to a narrowing of the foreskin of the male reproductive structure and misplaced urethral openings. - **Puberty** is the period of life that generally occurs between 10-15 years of age. It is when the reproductive organs **grow to their adult size** and become functional under the rising of gonadal hormones. - **Testosterone** for males and **Estrogen** for females. Reproductive capability occurs till menopause for men and women. - In males, as they reach the age of 13, puberty is characterized by the **increase in the size of their reproductive organs** followed by the **appearance of hair** in the pubic area, axillary, and face. This growth continues for 2 years until sexual maturation marked by the presence of mature semen. - In females, the **budding of their breasts** usually coming at the age of 11 signals their puberty stage. **Menarche** is the first menstrual period of females which happens two years after the start of puberty. **Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System.** - **Infections** are the most common problems associated with the reproductive system in adults. - **Vaginal infections** are more common in young and elderly women and in those whose resistance to diseases is low. - The usual infections include those caused by **Escherichia coli** which spread through the digestive tract, the sexually transmitted microorganisms such as **syphilis, gonorrhea, and herpes virus; and yeast (a type of fungus).** - Vaginal infections that are left untreated may spread throughout the female reproductive tract and may cause **pelvic inflammatory disease and sterility.** - Problems that involve painful or abnormal menses may also be due to **infection or hormone imbalance** - In males, the most common inflammatory conditions are **prostatitis, urethritis, and epididymitis** - **Sexually transmitted disease (STD) microorganisms** are transmitted inflammation of the testes, is rather uncommon but is serious because it can cause sterility. - **Orchitis** most commonly follows mumps in an adult male. - **Neoplasms** are a major threat to reproductive organs. - **Tumors of the breast and cervix** are the most common reproductive cancers in adult females and **prostate cancer** (a common sequel to prostatic hypertrophy) problem in adult males is a widespread problem in adult males. **Menopause** - A natural decrease in ovarian function usually follows characterized by reduced estrogen production that causes irregular ovulation and shorter menstrual periods. Consequently, ovulation and menses stop entirely, ending childbearing ability. - This event is called **menopause,** which occurs when females no longer experience menstruation. - The production of estrogen may still continue after menopause but the **ovaries finally stop functioning** as endocrine organs. - The reproductive organs and breasts begin to **atrophy or shrink** if estrogen is no longer released from the body. - The vagina becomes **dry** that causes intercourse to become painful (particularly if frequent). - Vaginal infections become increasingly common. **Other Consequences of Estrogen Deficiency** - Some physicians prescribe low-dose estrogen-progestin preparations to help women through this usually difficult period and to prevent skeletal and cardiovascular complications. - **There is no counterpart for menopause in males.** - Male reproductive capability seems **unending.** - Healthy men are still able to father offspring well into their 80s and beyond. **Erogenous Zones** - Refers to parts of the body that are primarily receptive and **increase sexual arousal** when touched in a sexual manner. - Commonly known erogenous zones are **the mouth, breasts, genitals, and anus.** - Erogenous zones may **vary** from one person to another. - Some people may enjoy being touched in a certain area more than the other areas. - Other common areas of the body that can be aroused easily may include the **neck, thighs, abdomen, and feet.** **Human Sexual Behaviors** - any activity-solitary, between two persons, or in a group that induces sexual arousal (Gebhard, PH. 2017). - There are two major factors that determine human sexual behavior: - the **inherited sexual response patterns** - the **degree of restraint** or other types of influence exerted on the individual by society in the expression of his sexuality. **Types of Behavior** - The various types of human sexual behavior are usually classified according to the **gender and number of participants.** There is solitary behavior involving only one individual, and there is sociosexual behavior involving more than one person. - **Sociosexual behavior** is generally divided into **heterosexual behavior** (male with female) and **homosexual behavior** (male with male or female with female). If three or more individuals are involved, it is, possible to have heterosexual and homosexual activity simultaneously (Gebhard, P.H. 2017). - **Solitary Behavior** - **Self-gratification** means self-stimulation that leads to sexual arousal and generally, sexual climax. Usually, most self-gratification takes place **in private** as an end in itself, but can also be done in a sociosexual relationship. Majority of males and females have **fantasies of some sociosexual activity** while they gratify themselves. - Nowadays, humans are **frequently being exposed to sexual stimuli** especially from advertising and social media. Some adolescents **become aggressive when they respond to such stimuli.** The rate of teenage pregnancy is increasing in our time. The challenge is to **develop self-control** in order to balance suppression and free expression. - **Sociosexual Behavior** - **Heterosexual behavior** is the greatest amount of sociosexual behavior that occurs between only one male and one female. It usually begins in childhood and may be **motivated by curiosity**, such as showing or examining genitalia. Physical contact involving **necking or petting** is considered as an ingredient of the learning process and eventually of courtship and the selection of a marriage partner. - **Coitus**, the insertion of the male reproductive structure into the female reproductive organ, is viewed by society quite differently depending upon the marital status of the individuals. - **Extramarital coitus** involving wives is generally condemned and, if permitted, is allowed only under exceptional conditions or with specified persons. - **Post marital coitus** (ie, coitus by separated, divorced or widowed persons) is almost always ignored. - A behavior may be interpreted by society or the individual as **erotic** (ie, capable of engendering sexual response) depending on **the context in which the behavior occurs.** **Physiology of Human Sexual Response** 1. **Excitement Phase** - It is caused by **increase in pulse and blood pressure**, a sudden rise in blood supply to the surface of the body resulting in increased **skin temperature, flushing, and swelling of all distensible body parts** (particularly noticeable in the male reproductive structure and female breasts), more rapid breathing, the secretion of genital fluids, vaginal expansion, and a general increase in muscle tension. These symptoms of arousal eventually increase to a near maximal physiological level that leads to the next stage. 2. **Plateau Phase** - It is generally **of brief duration.** If stimulation is continued, orgasm usually occurs. 3. **Sexual Climax** - It is marked **by a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure**, a rapid increase in pulse rate and blood pressure, and spasms of the pelvic muscles causing contractions of the female reproductive organ and ejaculation by the male. It is also characterized by involuntary vocalizations. Sexual climax **may last for a few seconds** (normally not over ten), after which the individual enters the resolution phase. 4. **Resolution Phase** - It is the last stage that refers to the return to a **normal or subnormal physiologic state.** Males and females are similar in their response sequence. Whereas males return to normal even if stimulation continues, but continued stimulation can produce additional orgasms in females. **Females are physically capable of repeated orgasms without the intervening \"rest period\" required by males.** **Nervous System Factors** - The **autonomic nervous system** is involved in controlling involuntary responses during sexual responses. - The **efferent cerebrospinal nerves** transmit sensory messages to the brain, which interprets and integrates them to dictate bodily responses. - The **hypothalamus** and **limbic system** are believed to regulate sexual response, but there is no specialized \"sex center\" in the human brain. - Each individual has coded in its brain **two sexual response patterns:** - **mounting** (masculine) behavior - **mounted** (feminine) behavior - **Sex hormones** can intensify the mounting behavior of individuals. - Reflex sexual responses are mediated by **the lower spinal cord** and can lead to erection and ejaculation in males, or vaginal discharge and lubrication in females, when the genital and perineal areas are stimulated. **Sexual Problems and Sexually Transmitted Diseases** - **Physiological Problems** - Physical issues affecting sexual response *Common Conditions:* - Vaginal infections - Retroverted uteri - Prostatitis - Adrenal tumors - Diabetes - Senile changes of the vagina - Cardiovascular problems *Treatment:* - Medication - Surgery - Challenges with nervous system issues - **Psychological Problems** - Mental and emotional factors affecting sexual response. *Causes:* - Social inhibitions - Maladaptive attitudes - Ignorance and sexual myths *Examples:* - Unrealistic expectations from media and folklore - Feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, and guilt **Common Sexual Issues** - **Premature Emission of Semen:** - Common in young males - May result from sexual tension or deprivation - **Erectile Impotence:** - Psychological origin in males under 40 - Physical causes more common in older males - Fear and anxiety contributing to the problem - **Ejaculatory Impotence:** - Inability to ejaculate during coitus - Psychogenic origin and associations with trauma **Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)** - Infections transmitted through sexual contact *Causes:* - Bacteria - Viruses - Parasites *Examples:* - Gonorrhea - Genital herpes - HPV infection - HIV/AIDS - Chlamydia - Syphilis **Impact of STDs** - **Global Health Priority:** - Significant impact on women and infants - Inter-relationships with HIV and AIDS - **Complications:** - Pelvic inflammatory disease - Infertility - Ectopic pregnancy - Cervical cancer - Perinatal infections **HIV/AIDS** - **HIV:** - Human Immunodeficiency Virus - Targets immune system (T-cells/CD4 cells) - **AIDS:** - Advanced stage of HIV infection - Increases susceptibility to other diseases - **Transmission:** - Body fluids (blood, semen, vaginal fluids, breast milk) **Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases** 1. **Chlamydia** - It is a common bacterial STD caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. It often has no symptoms, especially in women, but can lead to reproductive complications such as **pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and infertility** if left untreated. - Men may experience symptoms like **burning during urination** or discharge from the penis. - Chlamydia is primarily spread through **vaginal, anal, or oral sex with an infected person**. It can also be transmitted from a mother to her baby during childbirth. 2. **Gonorrhea** - bacterial STD caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It can infect the **genital tract, rectum, and throat.** - Gonorrhea is transmitted through **vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who is infected**. - Like chlamydia, it can also be passed from an infected mother to her baby during childbirth. - Symptoms in men include **painful urination** and discharge from the penis, while women may have **vaginal discharge, pelvic pain, or no symptoms at all.** Untreated gonorrhea can lead to PID and complications such as infertility. 3. **Syphilis** - a bacterial STD caused by Treponema pallidum. It **progresses through stages** and can cause **severe health issues** if untreated. - Syphilis spreads through direct contact with syphilitic sores, which occur mainly on the **genitals, anus, lips, or mouth, during vaginal, anal, or oral sex**. - It can also be passed from mother to child during pregnancy, leading to congenital syphilis. 4. **Chancroid** - a bacterial infection caused by Haemophilus ducreyi, characterized by **painful genital ulcers.** - Chancroid is acquired through **sexual contact,** especially when there are open sores or ulcers on the genitals. - It is more common in regions with poor access to healthcare. - It is known for causing **painful, soft chancres that may break down into larger ulcers.** 5. **Human Papillomavirus (HPV)** - a viral infection that can lead to **genital warts and is associated with various cancers.** - HPV is spread through **skin-to-skin** contact during **vaginal, anal, or oral sex.** - It can be transmitted even when the infected person shows no signs or symptoms. - Some strains can cause **warts**, while others can **lead to cancer** including cervical, anal, and oropharyngeal cancers. 6. **Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)** - a viral infection with two types: **HSV-1** (typically oral herpes) and **HSV-2** (typically genital herpes). - Both types can **cause painful sores and blisters** on or around **the genitals, mouth, or anus.** - The infection is **lifelong**, with symptoms that may recur. - HSV is transmitted through direct skin-to-skin contact during **vaginal, anal, or oral sex,** as well as through **kissing** or contact with infected areas. - The virus can be transmitted even when **sores are not visible.** 7. **Trichomonas Vaginalis** - a common STD, caused by the protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. It leads to **genital irritation, discharge, and itching**. - Symptoms in women include **itching, burning, and discharge from the vagina**, while men often experience **no symptoms or mild irritation**. **Natural and Artificial Methods of Contraception** **Natural Method** The natural family planning methods **do not involve any chemical or foreign body introduction** into the human body. People who are very conscious of their religious beliefs are more inclined to use the natural way of birth control and others follow such natural methods because they are more cost-effective. 1. **Abstinence** - This natural method involves **refraining from sexual intercourse** and is the most effective natural birth control method with ideally 0% fail rate. It is considered to be the most effective way to avoid STis (Sexually Transmitted Infections). 2. **Calendar Method** - This method is also called as the **rhythm method.** It entails **withholding from coitus** during the days that the woman is fertile. According to the menstrual cycle, the woman is likely to conceive **three or four days before and three or four days after ovulation**. The woman needs to record her menstrual cycle for six months in order to calculate the woman\'s safe days to prevent conception. 3. **Basal Body Temperature** - The basal body temperature (BBT) indicates **the woman\'s temperature at rest.** Before the day of ovulation and during ovulation, BBT falls at 0.5°F, it increases to a full degree because of progesterone and maintains its level throughout the menstrual cycle. This serves as the basis for the method. The woman must **record her temperature every morning before any activity.** A slight decrease in the basal body temperature followed by a gradual increase in the basal body temperature can be a sign that a woman has ovulated. 4. **Cervical Mucus Method** - The **change in the cervical mucus during ovulation** is the basis for this method. During ovulation, the cervical mucus is copious, thin, and watery. It also exhibits the property of **spinnbarkeit**, wherein it can be stretched up until at least 1 inch and is slippery. The woman is said to be fertile as long as the cervical mucus is **copious and watery.** Therefore, she must avoid coitus during those days to prevent conception. 5. **Sympothermal Method** - The symptothermal method is basically a **combination of the BBT method and the cervical mucus method.** The woman records her temperature every morning and also takes note of changes in her cervical mucus. She should abstain from coitus three days after a rise in her temperature or on the fourth day after the peak of a mucus change. 6. **Ovulation Detection** - The ovulation detection method uses **an over-the-counter kit** that requires the **urine sample** of the woman. The kit can predict ovulation through the surge of luteinizing hormone (LH) that happens 12 to 24 hours before ovulation. 7. **Coitus Interruptus** - Coitus Interruptus is one of the **oldest methods that prevents conception**. A couple still goes on with coitus, but the man **withdraws the moment he ejaculates** to emit the spermatozoa **outside of the female reproductive organ.** A disadvantage of this method is the pre-ejaculation fluid that contains a few spermatozoa that may cause fertilization. **Artificial Method of Contraception** 1. **Oral Contraceptives (pill)** - It contains **synthetic estrogen and progesterone.** Estrogen suppresses the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and LH to prevent ovulation. Moreover, progesterone decreases the permeability of the cervical mucus to limit the sperms access to the ova. It is suggested that the woman takes the first pill on the first sunday after the beginning of a menstrual flow, or as soon as it is prescribed by the Doctor. 2. **Transdermal Patch** - The transdermal patch contains both **estrogen and progesterone**. The woman should apply **one patch every week for three weeks** on the following areas: Upper outer arm, **Upper torso, Abdomen, or Buttocks.** At the fourth week, no patch is applied because the menstrual flow would then occur. The area where the patch is applied should be clean, dry, and free of irritation. 3. **Vaginal Ring** - The vaginal ring **releases estrogen and progesterone and it surrounds the cervix.** The silicone ring is inserted into the female's reproductive organ and it remains there for three weeks and then removed on the fourth week, as menstrual flow would occur. The woman becomes fertile as soon as the ring is removed. 4. **Subdermal Implants** - Two **rod-like implants** inserted under the skin of the female during her menses or on the seventh day of her menstruation to make sure that she will not get pregnant. The implants are made with eronogestrel, decogestrel, and progestin and can be helpful for three to five years. 5. **Hormonal Injections** - contains **medroxyprogesterone**, a progesterone, and is usually given once every 12 weeks intramuscularly. The injection causes changes in the endometrium and cervical mucus and can help prevent ovulation. 6. **Intrauterine Device** - It is **a small, T- shaped object** containing progesterone that is inserted into the uteros via female reproductive organ. It prevents fertilization by creating a local sterile inflammatory condition to prevent implantation of the zygote. The UID is fitted only by physicians and inserted after the womans menstrual flow. The device can be effective for give tk seven years 7. **Chemical Barrier** - Chemical barriers such as **spermicides, vaginal gels and creams, and glycerin films** are used to cause the death of sperms before they can enter the cervix and to lower the pH level of the female reproductive organ so it will not become conducive for the sperm. On the other hand, these chemical barriers cannot prevent sexually transmitted infections. 8. **Diaphragm** - It is a **circular, rubber disk that fits the cervix** and should be placed before coitus. Diaphragm works by inhibiting the entrance of the sperm into the female reproductive organ and it works better when used together with a spermicide. The diaphragm should be fitted only by the physician, and should remain in place for six hours after coitus. 9. **Male Condoms** - The male condom is a **latex or synthetic rubber sheath** that is placed on the erect male reproductive organ before penetration into the female reproductive organ to trap the sperm during ejaculation. It can prevent STIs (Sexually Transmitted Infections) and can be bought over-the-counter. Male condoms have an ideal fail rate of 2% and a typical fail rate of 15% due to a break in the sheath\'s integrity or spilling of semen. 10. **Female Condoms** - Female condoms are made up of **latex rubber sheaths that are pre-lubricated** **with spermicide**. They are usually bound by two rings. The outer ring is first inserted against the opening of the female reproductive organ and the inner ring covers the cervix. It is used to prevent fertilization of the egg by the sperm cells. 11. **Surgical Methods** - **Male.** During vasectomy, a small incision is made on each side of the scrotum. The vas deferens is then tied, cauterized, cut, or plugged to block the passage of the sperm. The patient is advised to use backup contraceptive method until two negative sperm count res are recorded because the sperm could remain viable in the deferens for six months. - **Female.** In women, tubal ligation is performed after menstruation and before ovulation. The procedure is done through a small incision under the woman\'s umbilicus that targets the fallopian tube for cutting cauterizing, or blocking to inhibit the passage of both the sperm and the ova. **LESSON 2** - **Product Advertisements** are suggestive of making us feel better or look good. - **Belk 91988)** stated that ***"we regard our possessions as part of ourselves. We are what we have and what we possess."*** - There is a direct link between **self-identity** and **what we have to possess.** - Our wanting to have and possess has a connection with another aspect of the self, the **material self.** **Material Self** - **William James** wrote in his book, **The Principles of Psychology** that understanding the self can be examined through its different components. - He described these components as: (1) **it's constituents,** (2) the feelings and emotions they arouse-**self-feelings,** (3) the actions to which they prompt-**self-seeking** and **self-preservation**. - The constituents of the self are composed of the **material self, the social self, the spiritual self, and pure ego.** - The **material self** is about our bodies, clothes, immediate family, and home.  - The innermost part of our material self is the **body**. - Next to our body are the **clothes** we use. Influenced bu the "**Philosophy of Dress**" by Herman Lotze, James believed that clothing is an essential part of the material self. - Lotze in his book, **Microcosmus**, stipulates that ***"any time we bring an object to the surface of our body, we invest that object into the consciousness of our personal existence taking in its contours to be our own and making it part of the self."*** - Third in the hierarchy is our **immediate family**. - The fourth component of material self is our **home.** Home is where our heart is. **We Are What We Have** - As we grow older, putting importance to material possession **decreases.** - The possessions that we dearly have **tell something about who we are**, our self-concept, our past, and even our future. **LESSON 3** - **Spiritual self** is one of the four constituents of the 'self' according to William James. - It is the most **intimate, inner subjective part** of self. **Religion** - **Rebecca Stein** works on the definition of religion '**as a basic set of cultural beliefs and practices that usually includes some or all basic characteristics.**' These characteristics are: 1. A belief in anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit and gods 2. A focus on the sacred supernatural, where sacred refers to a feeling of reverence and awe 3. The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings as well as physical beings and objects 4. The performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of sacred object to communicate to supernatural beings and/or to influence or control events 5. The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means 6. Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control within a community; provide explanation for unknown and a sense of control for individuals - An individual lives in a society where there are many practices of religion. - The choice of religious belief lies within the **spiritual self.** **Ritual** - The performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or sacred law. - There are three fundamental characteristics of rituals according to Penner: 1. A feeling of emotion of respect, awe, fascination, or dread in relation to the sacred. 2. Dependence upon a belief system that is usually expressed in the language of myth 3. Is symbolic in relation to its reference. - Rituals may be viewed as a **system of symbolic acts that is based upon arbitrary rules**. **Some World Religious Beliefs and Practices** **Buddhism** *Beliefs* - Life is not a bed of roses, instead, there are suffering, pain and frustrations. 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