Understanding The Self - Reviewer PDF

**UNDERSTANDING THE SELF** **THE SELF IN DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES** **Goal of Philosophy:** Address big questions: ethics (how we should act), metaphysics (what exists), epistemology (how we know), logic (how we should reason). **Knowledge vs. Wisdom:** **Knowledge**: General awareness of facts,...

**UNDERSTANDING THE SELF** **THE SELF IN DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES** **Goal of Philosophy:** Address big questions: ethics (how we should act), metaphysics (what exists), epistemology (how we know), logic (how we should reason). **Knowledge vs. Wisdom:** **Knowledge**: General awareness of facts, truths, and principles. **Wisdom**: Accumulated knowledge gained through experience. **Definition of Philosophy**: From Greek words "Philo" (love) and "Sophia" (wisdom): the love of wisdom. Classical definition: The science that studies the first causes or highest principles of all things by natural light of reason. Branches of Philosophy: **Metaphysics**: Study of ultimate reality. **Epistemology**: Study of knowledge. **Ontology**: Study of existence. **Ethics**: Study of moral standards. **Logic**: Study of reasoning. **Four Thinking Periods in Philosophy** **Ancient-Classica**l: Cosmo-centric focus on change and permanence (Plato, Aristotle). **Medieval**: Theo-centric, focused on faith and reason (St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas). **Modernity**: Anthropocentric, focused on reason and senses (Descartes, Hume). ** Post-modernity**: Absence of a central concern, plurality, and particularity (e.g., Foucault, Habermas). **Ancient-Classical Period (6th BCE to 4 ACE)** **Socrates (469-399 BCE):** Known for the Socratic Method---a way of seeking truth through persistent questioning. Key Beliefs: **The immortal soul:** Believed the soul is eternal and more important than the body. **Virtue and happiness**: A virtuous life leads to true happiness. **Self-knowledge**: "The unexamined life is not worth living." Socrates urged individuals to pursue deep self-reflection to understand their true nature. Distinguished between the visible world (physical, changeable) and the invisible (eternal, unchanging) nature of the soul. **Plato (428-348 BCE):** A student of Socrates, Plato is famous for his Theory of Forms, which proposes that the physical world is a shadow of the true reality found in the world of ideas. **Tripartite Soul:** The soul consists of three parts: **Appetitive**: Desires related to basic needs like food and sex. **Rational**: The part that seeks truth and wisdom, should govern the other parts. **Spirited**: Pursues honor and victory. **Allegory of the Cave**: Illustrates the difference between the world of appearances and the world of reality (forms). The physical world is a world of change, while the world of ideas is eternal and unchanging. **Aristotle (384-322 BCE):** Plato's student but disagreed with his theory of forms. Aristotle believed that reality is observable and that forms exist within things, not in a separate realm. Virtue Ethics: Introduced the concept of the Golden Mean, the idea that virtue lies between excess and deficiency. Emphasized empirical observation as a means to understand the world. **Medieval Period (400-1500 ACE)** **St. Augustine (354-430):**Heavily influenced by Plato, St. Augustine integrated Christianity with Platonism. **Key Beliefs:** Theory of Forms from a Christian perspective: These forms are divine concepts that exist within God. The self is immaterial, made up of a soul that is self-aware and capable of recognizing truth. Believed in the duality of body and soul, where the body is associated with the physical world, and the soul tends to divine matters. **St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274):**Synthesized Aristotle's philosophy with Christian theology. **Developed Five Proofs of God's existence, focusing on logical reasoning:** **Argument from Motion**: Everything in motion was moved by something else, ultimately leading to an Unmoved Mover (God). **Causation**: Everything has a cause, and there must be a First Cause. **Contingency**: Contingent beings require a necessary being (God) for their existence. **Degrees of Perfection:** The varying degrees of qualities imply the existence of a perfect being (God). **Intelligent Design**: The order in the universe suggests an intelligent designer (God). **Modern Period (16th to 19th Century)** **René Descartes (1596-1650):**Considered the father of modern philosophy and emphasized rationalism. Famous for the phrase **"Cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am")**, arguing that the very act of doubting one's existence proves a thinking self exists. Introduced mind-body dualism: The mind (immaterial, thinking substance) is distinct from the body (material substance). The mind is constant and unaffected by time, while the body changes. **David Hume (1711-1776):**A key figure in empiricism, Hume argued that all knowledge comes from sense experience. Rejected Descartes' view of a constant self. Instead, he proposed the Bundle Theory, where the self is merely a collection of changing impressions and experiences. Impressions (vivid experiences) are stronger than ideas (less forceful representations of impressions). Hume was skeptical of reason's ability to govern human behavior, emphasizing that passions (feelings) often dictate actions. **Immanuel Kant (1724-1804):** Developed a transcendental view of the self. The self is not just a part of the physical world but relates to a non-physical realm. Distinguished between the inner self (awareness of psychological states, moods, and feelings) and the outer self (the body and senses interacting with the physical world). Argued that the self organizes information in three ways: Raw perceptual input. Recognizing concepts. Reproducing them in imagination. **Post-Modern Period (20th Century to Present)** **Sigmund Freud (1856-1939):**Introduced psychoanalysis and the structure of the mind, divided into: **Id**: Operates on the pleasure principle---seeks immediate gratification. **Ego**: Operates on the reality principle---mediates between the id and reality. **Superego**: Represents societal norms and morals. Described the unconscious mind as a repository for repressed memories and socially unacceptable desires. **Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976):** Criticized Descartes' mind-body dualism and coined the term "category mistake," arguing that the mind is not a separate entity from the body. Described the mind as intelligent acts and behaviors, rejecting the notion of a separate mental world. **Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961):** Rejected Cartesian dualism and emphasized embodied subjectivity---the idea that the body and mind are deeply connected. Argued that the self should be understood through lived experiences, as the body is the primary means through which we know the world. **Paul Churchland (1942-Present):** Advocated for eliminative materialism, the belief that mental states like beliefs and desires are not real. Argued that the self is entirely physical and tied to the workings of the brain. Changes in the brain, such as head injuries, can alter personality, which suggests there is no separate immaterial soul. **Western Concept of the Self-LESSON 2** **Ancient Greek Thought**: The Greeks viewed humans as bearers of irreplaceable value. The individual was central to their thinking, emphasizing reason and the role of the self as distinct from the external world. **Medieval Period:** **Thomas Aquinas:** Focused on the body as a constituting factor of individuality. He combined Christianity with Greek philosophy, presenting the self in the context of a divine plan and human purpose. **Renaissance and Enlightenment:** **René Descartes**: Famous for "Cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). His view represents the dichotomy between the thinking subject (self) and the external world. The self, in this perspective, is an independent and distinct observer. Descartes' philosophy marks the Western tendency toward individualism, emphasizing the autonomous and rational nature of the self. **Categories of the Self in Western Thought (Frank Johnson):** 1.**Analytical**: The self is an observer, separate from external objects (Me vs. Others). 2.**Monotheistic**: The self is modeled after a unitary, omnipotent being (God). 3.**Individualistic**: The self is defined through self-expression and self-actualization. 4.**Materialistic**: Emphasis on physical reality, discrediting non-empirical explanations. **Eastern Concept of the Self** **Hinduism**: The earliest Eastern views come from the Vedas and Hindu philosophy. The Brahman represents the ultimate, divine consciousness that encompasses the universe. The self is part of the Brahman, and one's journey involves recognizing the Brahman within oneself and others. **Buddhism:** The self is viewed as non-permanent and constantly changing. **Anatta (no-self)**: There is no eternal, unchanging self or soul. The self is a dynamic process, and the illusion of a permanent self is the root cause of human sufferin Suffering arises from attachment to a false sense of self that is ever-changing. **Confucianism**: Jen (Heart of Compassion), Yi (Heart of Righteousness), Li (Heart of Propriety), and Chih (Heart of Wisdom): These four beginnings are potentials for moral development. The self is not an individual entity but deeply embedded in family and society. One's selfhood is shaped by fulfilling social obligations and participating in communal life. **Taoism**: The self is one of the countless manifestations of the Tao (the Way). There is no hierarchical view of self, society, or cosmos. Chuang-Tzu emphasizes the self as an entity engaged in self-transformation to achieve harmony with nature and society. This contrasts with the Confucian idea that the self is bound by social roles. **Comparison of Eastern and Western Views** **Western Philosophy:** Focuses on the autonomy of the individual and the belief in a linear progression of life. Life is seen as a service (to God, business, etc.), with an emphasis on external goals such as success and achievement. The self is often defined in terms of rationality, with strong emphasis on individualism and the material world. Leadership is hands-on, and personal success is measured through external accomplishments. **Eastern Philosophy:** Emphasizes cosmological unity and the cyclical nature of life. Focuses on self-liberation from the false self and finding the true self, often described as achieving a state of no-self. Life is a spiritual journey, and self-realization comes from within through practices like meditation and aligning oneself with the Tao or the Brahman. The self is seen as interdependent with the world, society, and others. Leadership is often more spiritual or indirect. **Key Cultural Differences** **Western**: **Individualism**: Values independence, personal freedom, and uniqueness. **Linear view of life**: Focus on external achievements and rational problem-solving. **Emphasis on material success**. Eastern: **Collectivism**:Emphasizes interdependence, family, and community relationships. **Cyclical view of life**: Spiritual growth and harmony with the universe are prioritized over material success. Emphasis on spiritual practices like meditation and self-reflection. **Collectivist vs. Individualist Self** **Collectivist**: Found in many Eastern cultures (e.g., China, Japan, the Philippines). The self is defined through relationships, obligations, and social harmony. Interdependence and fulfilling one's role within the community are of utmost importance. **Individualist**: Prominent in Western cultures (e.g., USA, UK, Canada). The self is an independent entity that values personal achievement, self-expression, and freedom. Individuals prioritize personal goals over group interests. **THE SELF IN THE PERSPECTIVE OF ANTHROPOLOGY** **Difference Between Sociology and Anthropology:** **Sociology**:Studies society, patterns of social relationships, social interactions, and culture. Focuses on the development, biological characteristics, and beliefs of humankind. **Anthropology:** The scientific study of humans, their behavior, and societies, past and present. Focuses on the origins, cultural development, and diversity of humans. Explores what makes us human and how cultures influence human evolution. **Key Anthropological Concepts:** **Katherine Ewing (1990):** Describes the self as a physical, psychological, and social entity shaped by culture. Asserts that the self is illusory, constructed from cultural concepts and personal memories. People project different self-representations based on social context. **Joseph LeDoux (2002):** Proposes that the self is dynamic and constantly changes due to factors like learning, stress, and aging. **Identified two aspects of the self:** 1.**Implicit**: Self that you are consciously aware of. 2.**Explicit**: Self that is not immediately available to consciousness. **Self and Culture:** **Cultural Influence on Self:** How individuals see themselves and relate to others is defined by culture. The development of the self varies across cultures, shaped by cultural traditions and social practices. **Cultural Constructions of the Self:** **Independent Construct (Individualistic Cultures):** Emphasizes the self as separate and distinct, focusing on internal attributes and traits. Seen in North America and Europe. **Interdependent Construct (Collectivist Cultures):** Stresses the connection between the individual and others, valuing social relationships. Seen in East Asia. **Catherine Raeff (2010): Cultural Influence on Self** 1\. **Relationships**: Culture influences whether relationships are voluntary or duty-based. 2\. **Personality Traits**: Culture affects the value of traits like humility and assertiveness. 3\. **Achievement**: Culture shapes how success and achievements are defined. 4\. **Expressing Emotions**: Culture dictates how emotions are expressed, whether publicly or privately. **Understanding the Self in Psychology: A Comprehensive Review** **What is Psychology?** Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior, thought processes, and emotions. It seeks to understand how our minds work and how these processes affect our interactions with the world. Key areas of psychology include: **Brain Function**: How our neurological systems influence behavior. **Memory**: How we store and recall information. **Social Interactions**: How we communicate and relate to others. **Child Development**: Understanding how children learn and grow. **The Self as a Cognitive Construction** Psychology provides tools for understanding our identity by exploring how our thoughts, feelings, and experiences shape our self-concept---the image we have of ourselves. **Jean Piaget\'s Cognitive Development Theory** Jean Piaget, a pioneering Swiss psychologist, focused on how children develop cognitively. His theory suggests that cognitive development is influenced by both biological growth and experiences in the environment. Key components of his theory include: 1\. **Schemas**: Mental frameworks that help us organize knowledge and experiences. 2\. **Adaptation**: The process by which individuals adjust their schemas in response to new experiences. 3\. **Stages of Cognitive Development**:Piaget identified four stages that reflect increasing complexity in thinking. **Stages of Cognitive Development** 1\. **Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)**: Children learn through physical actions and sensory experiences (e.g., touching and exploring). 2\. **Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)**: Development of language and symbolic thinking, but thinking is still intuitive and egocentric (focused on oneself). 3\. **Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)**: Children begin to think logically about concrete events and understand concepts like conservation (the idea that quantity doesn't change despite changes in shape). 4\. **Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)**: Development of abstract and hypothetical thinking, enabling more complex problem-solving. **Harter's Self Development Concept** Dr. Susan Harter built on Piaget's ideas to examine how self-concept evolves through different life stages: 1\. **Early Childhood**: Self-descriptions are based on observable traits (e.g., "I am tall"). 2\. **Middle Childhood**: Children begin to describe themselves using traits (e.g., "I am smart"). 3\. **Adolescence**: Self-concept becomes more complex, incorporating feelings, thoughts, and personal values. 4\. **Emerging Adulthood**: Individuals develop visions of their possible selves, contemplating future possibilities and aspirations. William James: Me-Self and I-Self **William James introduced the concepts of:** - **I-Self**: The part of the self that is aware and reflective; the subject of experience. - **Me-Self**: The self that can be described and observed; the object of experience, which can be broken down into: - **Material Self**: Physical appearance and possessions. - **Social Self**: Relationships and social roles. - **Spiritual Self**: Personal values and character traits. **Real vs. Ideal Self-Concept** **Carl Rogers**, a key figure in humanistic psychology, emphasized the importance of self-actualization---the process of realizing one's full potential. **He proposed**: - **Ideal Self**: The person we aspire to be; our vision of the \"best\" version of ourselves. - **Real Self**: Who we are at any given moment; our current thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Rogers argued that congruence (alignment between the real self and ideal self) is essential for mental well-being. When these two selves are aligned, we feel fulfilled and at peace. In contrast, a significant gap between them can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction and maladjustment. **Unity vs. Multiple Selves** Gordon Allport introduced the idea of personality traits as core characteristics that define us. Contemporary psychology challenges the notion of a singular self, suggesting instead that individuals can embody multiple \"ego states\" as proposed by Eric Berne in his Transactional Analysis: - **Parent Ego State**: Represents authority, which can be nurturing or critical. - **Adult Ego State**: Reflects rational thinking and decision-making. - **Child Ego State**: Contains emotional responses and spontaneity, further divided into: - **Natural Child**: Playful and vulnerable. - **Little Professor**: Curious and exploratory. - **Adaptive Child:** Adjusts behavior to meet expectations. **Domains of the Self** **Gregg Henriques** proposed that the self comprises three interconnected domains: 1\. **Experiential Self**: The immediate experience of consciousness; our subjective reality. 2\. **Private Self-Conscious**: The internal narrator that interprets our experiences. 3\. **Public Self**: The image we present to others; our social persona. **True vs. False Self** Donald Winnicott explored the concepts of true and false selves: **False Self**: Developed from external expectations, this self may comply with societal norms but can lead to feelings of disconnection and inauthenticity. **Healthy False Self**: Functions well in society while still retaining some authentic qualities. **Unhealthy False Self:** Causes stress and discomfort, leading to maladjustment. **True Self**: Arises when a person feels accepted and valued for their authentic self. It represents spontaneity, creativity, and a sense of integrity. **Conclusion** Understanding the self through psychological frameworks allows for deeper insights into our identities, behaviors, and experiences. By examining the theories of Piaget, Harter, James, Rogers, and Winnicott, we can better navigate our personal development and strive for a more cohesive self-concept. This exploration not only fosters self-awareness but also promotes mental well-being and personal growth. **ADDITIONAL** 1\. Pre-modern vs. Modern Societies Pre-modern Societies: - **Small-scale communities:** Lived in rural or agrarian settings with a focus on agriculture. - **Limited technology:** Relied on traditional tools and methods for farming, trade, and communication. - **Rigid social hierarchies:** Strongly divided by class or caste systems, with limited social mobility. - **Community-centered life**: Identity and roles were often determined by family lineage, religion, and communal values. - **Tradition-bound:** Customs and religious beliefs guided laws and practices. **Modern Societies**: - **Industrialization**: Transition to large-scale industrial production, urbanization, and technological advancement. - **Social mobility:** Greater opportunities for individuals to change social status through education and career. - **Individualism**: People define themselves by personal achievements and choices, rather than communal ties. - **Secularization**: Religion plays a less dominant role in public life and governance. - **Rationalization**: Decisions and structures are based on efficiency, reason, and scientific methods rather than tradition. 2\. **Organic vs. Rational Groups** **Organic Groups:** - **Natural solidarity**: Members are bound together by emotional and traditional ties, like family or tribal groups. - **Informal structures:** Roles and responsibilities are less defined, often fluid and based on relationships. - **Shared values:** These groups maintain unity through shared beliefs and customs. Examples: Family, religious groups, ethnic communities. **Rational Groups:** - **Formal structures**: Defined by explicit rules, roles, and regulations, often found in modern bureaucracies. - **Efficiency-driven:** Members are focused on achieving specific goals in the most effective way. - **Objective relations:** Interactions are often impersonal, based on job descriptions or contracts. Examples: Corporations, governments, educational institutions. 3\. **Key Social Structures:** **Industrialism**: - **Mass production:** Shift from handcrafts to machine-based production of goods. - **Urbanization**: Growth of cities as people move from rural areas to urban centers for work. - **Division of labo**r: Specialization of tasks within industries, increasing efficiency but also creating alienation. **Capitalism:** - **Market-driven economy:** Private ownership of production, where goods and services are traded for profit. - **Class conflict:** Capitalism creates social classes (e.g., owners vs. workers), leading to inequalities in wealth and power. - **Consumer culture:** Emphasis on material wealth and consumption as indicators of success. **Institutions & Social Order:** - **Surveillance**: Modern societies maintain order through monitoring, regulations, and law enforcement (e.g., police, CCTV). - **Dynamism**: Constant change in institutions to adapt to new economic, social, and political challenges. - **Role in socialization:** Schools, governments, and the media shape individuals by enforcing norms and roles. 4\. **Role of Language in Development** **Language and identity:** - **Cultural expression:** Language is a key medium for expressing cultural identity and personal individuality. - **Cognitive development**: Helps structure thoughts and allows individuals to understand and interpret their world. - **Social connection:** Language enables individuals to communicate, collaborate, and form relationships. **Language as a tool for power:** **Control and influence**: In modern societies, those with control over dominant languages often hold more power and influence. **Social integration**: Learning a language can be a pathway to integrating into larger society, finding work, and accessing resources. 5\. **Importance of Play and Games in Socialization** **Development of social skills:** Learning rules: Games teach individuals the importance of following rules, mirroring societal expectations. - **Role-playing**: Through play, children and even adults experiment with different social roles (e.g., leadership, cooperation). - **Conflict resolution:** Games often involve negotiation and cooperation, important skills in resolving social conflicts. **Cultural transmission:** - **Passing on values**: Many traditional games carry cultural significance, passing down history and values to the next generation. - **Community building**: Play brings individuals together, fostering a sense of community and shared experience. **Psychological benefits:** Creativity and imagination: Play allows individuals to express creativity and test boundaries within safe environments. Stress relief: Games and recreational activities provide a necessary break from routine, reducing stress and fostering well-being.