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1. Steam Power ID: Steam engines used to power machinery, transport, and industry, primarily developed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Key figure: James Watt (1765). Significance: Revolutionized manufacturing, powering factories and increasing industrial output. Transformed transportation...

1. Steam Power ID: Steam engines used to power machinery, transport, and industry, primarily developed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Key figure: James Watt (1765). Significance: Revolutionized manufacturing, powering factories and increasing industrial output. Transformed transportation (railways and steamships), shrinking travel time and boosting trade. Paved the way for the growth of global economies and industrialized societies. 2. Child Labor ID: Widespread use of children in factories, mines, and industries during the Industrial Revolution (19th century). Children were often employed in dangerous, exploitative conditions with long working hours. Significance: Highlighted the moral and social issues of industrial capitalism and class disparity. Led to major reforms, including the Factory Acts, which began limiting child labor. Sparked early labor movements demanding workers' rights and better conditions. 3. Romanticism ID: Cultural and artistic movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature, emerging in the late 18th century. Key figures: William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, and Beethoven. Significance: Reaction against Enlightenment rationalism, focusing on emotion, intuition, and the sublime. Inspired nationalist movements by celebrating folk traditions, heritage, and national identity. Influenced political and cultural revolutions, contributing to broader social change in Europe. 4. Socialism ID: Political and economic ideology advocating for the collective ownership of resources and wealth redistribution, emerging in the 19th century. Key figures: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (Communist Manifesto, 1848). Significance: Criticized the inequality and exploitation of workers in industrial capitalism. Inspired labor unions, protests, and socialist revolutions (e.g., Russian Revolution). Shaped modern welfare states, with policies aimed at reducing inequality and promoting social justice. 5. Poor Law Amendment Act ID: 1834 British law reforming the system of poor relief, focusing on creating workhouses for the poor. Based on the “less eligibility” principle, making conditions in workhouses worse than the lowest paid job. Significance: Reduced the financial burden on the state by discouraging dependence on relief. Led to harsh, dehumanizing conditions in workhouses, causing public outrage and criticism. Sparked debates on the treatment of the poor and the role of government in welfare. 6. Factory Act ID: Series of British laws (first in 1833) regulating working conditions in factories, especially regarding child labor. Set maximum working hours and required schooling for children. Significance: Marked the beginning of industrial labor reform in Britain. Improved conditions for children and women working in factories. Contributed to the growth of the labor rights movement and set precedents for later workplace safety laws. 7. Reform Act ID: A series of British laws, beginning in 1832, that extended suffrage to a broader portion of the male population. The 1832 Reform Act particularly expanded voting rights to middle-class men. Significance: Increased political representation for the urban middle class. Helped shift power away from aristocratic elites, democratizing the political system. Set the stage for further democratic reforms, including later suffrage expansions. 8. Congress of Vienna ID: A 1815 conference of European powers (Austria, Britain, Prussia, Russia) to restore order after Napoleon's defeat and re-establish the balance of power. Led by Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich. Significance: Created a conservative order in Europe to prevent future revolutions and wars. Redrew national boundaries, reducing French power and restoring monarchies. Suppressed nationalist and liberal movements, delaying revolutionary changes in Europe. 9. Crimean War ID: A war (1853–1856) between Russia and an alliance of Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia, mainly fought over control of territories in the Ottoman Empire. Significance: Revealed the weaknesses of the Russian military and led to reforms in Russia. Shifted the balance of power in Europe, weakening Russia and strengthening Britain and France. Impacted the geopolitics of the Balkans and contributed to the eventual decline of the Ottoman Empire. 10. The Thousand ID: A 1860 military campaign led by Giuseppe Garibaldi to unify southern Italy under the Kingdom of Sardinia. Garibaldi and his 1,000 volunteers played a crucial role in the unification of Italy. Significance: Helped unify Italy under one nation, contributing to the formation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Strengthened the idea of nationalism and self-determination in Europe. Marked a turning point in European geopolitics, with a newly unified Italian state emerging. 11. Bismarck (Parliament and Military) ID: Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), Prussian statesman who unified Germany and implemented realpolitik, focusing on military power and political manipulation. Served as Prime Minister of Prussia and later the first Chancellor of Germany. Significance: Unified Germany through a series of wars and diplomatic maneuvers, including the Danish, Austro-Prussian, and Franco-Prussian Wars. Strengthened the military and used it as a tool for political power. Crafted alliances and policies (e.g., the Triple Alliance) that shaped European geopolitics for decades. 12. Austrian War (1866) ID: The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 was fought between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. Prussia, led by Bismarck, won decisively. Part of the broader process of German unification. Significance: Prussia's victory weakened Austria’s influence in German affairs and led to the exclusion of Austria from the North German Confederation. Marked a key step toward the creation of a unified German Empire under Prussian leadership. Altered the balance of power in Europe, solidifying Prussia as a dominant military force. 13. Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) ID: A war between France and Prussia, sparked by Bismarck's diplomatic manipulation. The defeat of France led to the unification of Germany. Key event: The capture of French Emperor Napoleon III at Sedan. Significance: Led to the fall of the French Empire and the establishment of the Third Republic in France. Resulted in the unification of Germany, with King Wilhelm I crowned as the German Emperor in 1871. Created tensions between France and the newly unified Germany, contributing to the buildup to World War I. 14. Weltpolitik ID: German foreign policy strategy initiated by Kaiser Wilhelm II (beginning in 1891), aimed at expanding German influence and establishing a colonial empire. Focused on building a large navy and pursuing aggressive diplomacy. Significance: Increased tensions between Germany and other European powers, particularly Britain and France, over colonial and naval rivalry. Contributed to the militarization of Europe and the arms race in the lead-up to World War I. Shifted Germany's foreign policy away from Bismarck's cautious diplomacy, leading to alliances that would later be tested in World War I. 15. Triple Alliance ID: A military alliance formed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. The alliance was primarily aimed at countering the threat from France and Russia. Significance: Created a powerful bloc in central Europe, contributing to the complex network of alliances that defined European diplomacy leading up to World War I. Italy's participation in the alliance was more tenuous, and it later switched sides during World War I. Strengthened Germany’s position in Europe but also increased the overall tension among major European powers.