Unit One Complete PDF

**Section A: Skeletal System** **1. Structure of the Skeletal System** - **Axial Skeleton**: Includes bones of the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. - Examples: Cranium, Vertebrae, Ribs. - **Appendicular Skeleton**: Includes bones of the limbs and girdles. - Exampl...

**Section A: Skeletal System** **1. Structure of the Skeletal System** - **Axial Skeleton**: Includes bones of the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. - Examples: Cranium, Vertebrae, Ribs. - **Appendicular Skeleton**: Includes bones of the limbs and girdles. - Examples: Femur, Humerus, Pelvis. - **Vertebral Column**: - **Cervical** - **Thoracic** - **Lumbar** - **Sacrum** - **Coccyx** **2. Postural Deviations** - **Neutral Spine Alignment**: Natural \"S\" shape of the spine. - **Kyphosis**: Excessive curvature of the thoracic spine, causing a hunchback appearance. - **Scoliosis**: Lateral curvature of the spine. **3. Types of Bones** - **Long Bones**: Provide leverage (e.g., femur, humerus). - **Short Bones**: Provide stability with limited movement (e.g., carpals, tarsals). - **Flat Bones**: Protect internal organs (e.g., sternum, cranium). - **Irregular Bones**: Complex shapes (e.g., vertebrae, pelvis). - **Sesamoid Bones**: Embedded in tendons to reduce friction (e.g., patella). **4. Bone Growth Process** - **Osteoclasts**: Break down old bone tissue. - **Osteoblasts**: Build new bone tissue. - **Epiphyseal Plate**: Growth plate where lengthening occurs during childhood. **Section B: Muscular System** **1. Types of Muscle** **Type** **Characteristics** **Functions** ---------- ---------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- Skeletal Striated, voluntary. Movement and posture maintenance. Cardiac Striated, involuntary. Pumps blood through the heart. Smooth Non-striated, involuntary. Regulates internal processes (e.g., digestion). **Major Skeletal Muscles** - **Key Upper Body Muscles**: Deltoids, Biceps, Triceps, Pectorals. - **Key Core Muscles**: Abdominals, Obliques, Erector Spinae. - **Key Lower Body Muscles**: Quadriceps, Hamstrings, Gluteals, Gastrocnemius. **3. Antagonistic Muscle Pairs** - **Definition**: Muscles that work in pairs, where one contracts (agonist) and the other relaxes (antagonist). - **Examples**: - **Biceps Curl**: - Agonist: Biceps. - Antagonist: Triceps. - **Knee Extension**: - Agonist: Quadriceps. - Antagonist: Hamstrings. **4. Types of Contractions** **Type** **Description** **Example** ------------ ----------------------------------------------- --------------------------------- Concentric Muscle shortens as it contracts. Lifting phase of a bicep curl. Eccentric Muscle lengthens under tension. Lowering phase of a bicep curl. Isometric Muscle length remains the same under tension. Holding a plank position. **5. Muscle Fibre Types** **Type** **Characteristics** **Example Activity** ---------- --------------------------------------------- ------------------------ Type I Slow-twitch, high endurance, aerobic. Long-distance running. Type IIa Fast-twitch, moderate endurance, anaerobic. 400m sprint. Type IIx Fast-twitch, low endurance, anaerobic. 100m sprint. **Section C: Respiratory System** **1. Structure** - **Key Components**: Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, diaphragm. **2. Mechanisms of Breathing** **Phase** **Description** ------------- --------------------------------------------------------- Inspiration Diaphragm contracts, rib cage expands, air flows in. Expiration Diaphragm relaxes, rib cage contracts, air is expelled. **3. Gaseous Exchange** - **Definition**: Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in alveoli. - **Process**: Oxygen diffuses into blood; carbon dioxide diffuses into alveoli for exhalation. **4. Responses and Adaptations** **Short-Term Response** **Explanation** -------------------------- ----------------------------------------- Increased Breathing Rate Supplies more oxygen to muscles. Increased Tidal Volume More air is inhaled/exhaled per breath. **Long-Term Adaptation** **Explanation** ---------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- Increased Lung Capacity Greater oxygen intake. Strengthened Respiratory Muscles Diaphragm and intercostals become stronger. **Section D: Cardiovascular System** **1. Structure of the Heart** - **Key Chambers**: Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle. - **Key Blood Vessels**: Aorta, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein, vena cava. - **Key Valves**: Bicuspid (mitral), tricuspid, aortic semilunar, pulmonary semilunar. - **Oxygenated Side**: Left side of the heart (pumps oxygenated blood to the body). - **Deoxygenated Side**: Right side of the heart (pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs). **2. Blood Vessels** **Vessel Type** **Structure Features** **Function** ----------------- ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- Arteries Thick muscular walls, narrow lumen. Carry oxygenated blood under pressure. Veins Thin walls, wide lumen, valves. Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart. Capillaries One-cell thick walls. Enable gaseous exchange. **3. Cardiac Cycle** - **Process**: 1. **Diastole**: Chambers relax and fill with blood. 2. **Atrial Systole**: Atria contract to push blood into ventricles. 3. **Ventricular Systole**: Ventricles contract to pump blood out. **4. Nervous Control** - **Sympathetic Nervous System**: Increases heart rate during exercise. - **Parasympathetic Nervous System**: Decreases heart rate during rest. **5. Responses and Adaptations** **Response** **Explanation** ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- Increased Heart Rate Pumps more blood to supply oxygen. Increased Stroke Volume More blood is ejected per contraction. **Adaptation** **Explanation** -------------------------- ------------------------------------ Cardiac Hypertrophy Heart becomes larger and stronger. Lower Resting Heart Rate More efficient heart function. **Section E: Energy Systems** **1. ATP-PC System** - **PC**: Phosphocreatine. - **Anaerobic or Aerobic**: Anaerobic. - **Duration**: 10--12 seconds. - **Energy Process**: PC splits to release energy for ATP resynthesis. - **Recovery Time**: 2--3 minutes. - **Sport Example**: Explosive activities like sprints and weightlifting. **2. Lactate System** - **Fuel**: Glucose. - **Anaerobic or Aerobic**: Anaerobic. - **Duration**: 1--2 minutes. - **By-Product**: Lactic acid (causes fatigue). - **Recovery**: 20--60 minutes. - **Sport Example**: 400m sprint, high-intensity intervals. **3. Aerobic System** - **Stages**: 1. **Aerobic Glycolysis**: Glucose breakdown with oxygen. 2. **Krebs Cycle**: Releases energy through chemical reactions. 3. **Electron Transport Chain**: Produces the most ATP. - **ATP Production**: 36--38 ATP molecules. - **Sport Example**: Long-duration activities like marathons. **4. Adaptations of Energy Systems** **Adaptation** **Energy System** **Explanation** ---------------------------------- ------------------- ------------------------------------------ Increased Mitochondria Aerobic Produces more ATP efficiently. Improved Lactate Tolerance Lactate Delays fatigue in high-intensity sports. Increased Phosphocreatine Stores ATP-PC Supports repeated explosive movements. **Section F: Interrelationships Between Body Systems** **Functions** - **Skeletal System**: Provides structure, protection, and blood cell production. - **Muscular System**: Enables movement and generates force. - **Respiratory System**: Supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. - **Cardiovascular System**: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste. - **Energy Systems**: Provides ATP for muscle contractions. **Responses During Exercise** - **Skeletal**: Increased mineral uptake in bones. - **Muscular**: Increased blood supply, muscle pliability, and temperature. - **Respiratory**: Increased breathing rate and tidal volume. - **Cardiovascular**: Increased heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output. - **Energy**: Use of ATP-PC, lactate, or aerobic systems based on intensity and duration. **Adaptations from Exercise** **System** **Key Adaptation** **Explanation** ---------------- --------------------------- ------------------------------------------- Skeletal Increased bone density Reduces risk of fractures. Muscular Hypertrophy Increases strength and endurance. Respiratory Increased lung capacity Improves oxygen intake. Cardiovascular Cardiac hypertrophy Enhances efficiency of the heart. Energy Systems Improved aerobic capacity Delays fatigue during prolonged activity. **Additional Factors Affecting Systems** **Skeletal System** - **Arthritis**: Causes joint pain and stiffness, limiting movement. - **Osteoporosis**: Weakens bones, increasing fracture risk. - **Age**: Reduced bone density as people age. **Muscular System** - **Sarcopenia**: Loss of muscle mass with age. - **Cramp**: Involuntary muscle contraction caused by dehydration or fatigue. **Respiratory System** - **Asthma**: Narrows airways, reducing airflow. - **Altitude**: Lower oxygen availability affects performance. **Cardiovascular System** - **Sudden Arrhythmic Death Syndrome (SADS)**: Risk during exercise for individuals with undiagnosed conditions. - **High/Low Blood Pressure**: Affects oxygen delivery and heart health. **Energy Systems** - **Diabetes**: Affects glucose regulation, impacting energy supply. - **Children's Lack of Lactate System**: Reduces capacity for anaerobic activities.