Unit II- Concepts Related to Anatomy and Physiology PDF

ANA1 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY A prepared by: Mark Joseph V. Liwanag, RN, MSN Course Facilitator  MODULE II Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology prepared by: Mark Joseph V. Liwanag, RN, MSN  ▪ Define anatomy and describe the Learning levels at which ana...

ANA1 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY A prepared by: Mark Joseph V. Liwanag, RN, MSN Course Facilitator  MODULE II Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology prepared by: Mark Joseph V. Liwanag, RN, MSN  ▪ Define anatomy and describe the Learning levels at which anatomy can be studied. Outcomes: ▪ Explain the importance of the After the relationship between structure and function. discussion, ▪ Define physiology. you should ▪ State two major goals of physiology. be able to: ▪ Describe the six levels of organization of the body, and describe the major characteristics of each level. Learning Outcomes: After the discussion, you should be able to: ▪ List the eleven organ systems, identify their components, and describe the major functions of each system. ▪ Define homeostasis, and explain why it is important for proper body function. ▪ Describe a negative-feedback mechanism and give an example. ▪ Describe a positive-feedback mechanism and give an example  PIONEERS IN THE SCIENCE OF ANATOMY LEONARDO DA VINCI ANDREAS VESALIUS WILLIAM HARVEY An italian, fist to Wrote a book on Discovered how the correctly illustrate the human anatomy blood circulates human skeleton with all founder of modern through the body of its bones human anatomy  ▪ Anatomy - is the scientific discipline that ANATOMY investigates the structure of the body. ▪ word anatomy means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study.  SUBDISCIPLINE OF ANATOMY A. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY ▪ Structure not visible to unaided eye ▪ Uses microscope or magnifying instrument to see very small structure in the body 1. CYTOLOGY: the study of cells of the body and their internal structure 2. HISTOLOGY: the study of tissues formed by cells and their products SUBDISCIPLINE OF ANATOMY B. GROSS ANATOMY ▪ Body structure observable by the unaided eye ▪ Ex. Intestine, stomach, heart, kidneys, etc. 1. DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY: the study of structural changes in the body between conception and maturation. 2. EMBRYOLOGY: the study of origin and development of the organism from fertilization of the oocyte until birth 3. PATHOLOGIC ANATOMY: examine all anatomic changes resulting from disease TWO BASIC APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF ANATOMY: ▪ Systemic anatomy - is the study of the body by systems, such as the cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems. ▪ Regional anatomy - is the study of the organization of the body by areas. ▪ Within each region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously.  Two general ways to examine ▪ Surface anatomy - the internal structures of a living the study of external person: features, such as bony projections, which serve as landmarks for locating deeper structures ▪ Anatomical imaging - involves the use of x- rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures.  PHYSIOLOGY ▪ Physiology - is the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living things. ▪ It is important in physiology to recognize structures as dynamic rather than fixed and unchanging.  MAJOR GOALS OF PHYSIOLOGY ARE: 1. to understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli 2. to understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of values in the presence of continually changing internal and external environments.  PHYSIOLOGY ▪ Human physiology – the study of a specific organism, the human ▪ Cellular physiology and Systemic physiology - subdivisions that emphasize specific organizational levels.  6 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY: 1. CHEMICAL LEVEL: ▪ Involves interaction among atoms and their combination into molecules. ▪ ATOMS: tiny building blocks of matter combine to form molecules 2. CELLULAR LEVEL: ▪ CELLS: basic unit of life ▪ e.g. Nerve cells – Brain ▪ Molecules + molecules = cells 6 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY: 3. TISSUE LEVEL ▪ is a group of similar cells and the material surrounding them ▪ 4 Primary TISSUE types: ▪ Epithelial tissue ▪ Connective tissue ▪ Muscle tissue ▪ Nervous tissue ▪ TISSUE: consists of group of similar cells that have a common function 6 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY: 4. ORGAN LEVEL ▪ Composed of 2 or more tissue type that together perform one or common function ▪ Tissues + tissues = organ ▪ E.g. urinary bladder, skin, stomach, eyes, heart… 6 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY: 5. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL ▪ Is a GROUP OF ORGANS classified as a unit because of a common function or set of functions ▪ E.g. kidney + ureters + urinary bladder + urethra = URINARY SYSTEM ▪ The 11 system ▪ Putting organs together 6 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY: 6. ORGANISM LEVEL ▪ Is any living thing considered as a whole ▪ whether composed of one cell, such as bacterium or trillion of cells such as a human  CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE: Six essential characteristics of life 1. Organization: refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to perform specific functions.  CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE: Six essential characteristics of life: 2. Metabolism: is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE: Six essential characteristics of life 3. Responsiveness: is the ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment and make the adjustments that help maintain its life.  CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE: Six essential characteristics of life 4. Growth: refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism. It can result from an increase in cell number, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells.  CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE: Six essential characteristics of life 5. Development: includes the changes an organism undergoes through time; it begins with fertilization and ends at death.  6. Reproduction: is the formation of CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE: new cells or new organisms. Without 6 essential characteristics of life reproduction of cells, growth and tissue repair are impossible.  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 1. Integumentary System ▪ Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevent water loss and produces vitamin D precursors ▪ Consists of skin, hair, nails and sweat glands  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 2. Skeletal System ▪ Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and adipose tissue. ▪ Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 3. Muscular System ▪ Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat. ▪ Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 4. Lymphatic System ▪ Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract. ▪ Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs. THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 5. Respiratory System ▪ Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH. ▪ Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages.  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 6. Digestive System ▪ Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes. ▪ Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs.  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 7. Nervous System ▪ A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions. ▪ Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 8. Endocrine System ▪ A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions. ▪ Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones. THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 9. Cardiovascular System ▪ Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature. ▪ Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 10. Urinary System ▪ Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. ▪ Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 11.1 Female Reproductive System ▪ Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. ▪ Consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, and associated structures.  THE ELEVEN SYSTEMS 11.2 Male Reproductive System ▪ Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors. ▪ Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis.  BODY PROCESSES 1. HOMEOSTASIS ▪ Homeo – the same ▪ Stasis – Standing/standing still ▪ condition in which body functions, body fluids, and other factors of the internal environment are maintained within a range of values suitable to support life.  BODY PROCESSES 1. HOMEOSTASIS ▪ VARIABLES: conditions within the body which is subject to changes (VS), ▪ e.g. Body Temp. ▪ HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM: things/actions that the body do to regulate that changes in the variables to bet into its set point (normal/ideal value) ▪ E.g. Shivering, perspiration - regulates body temp.  BODY PROCESSES NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ▪ Most systems of the body are regulated by this mechanism negative. ▪ NEGATIVE - means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted. ▪ Its function is to maintain homeostasis ▪ It does not prevent variation but maintain that variation within normal range. Ex. Maintenance of BP ▪ acts to return the variable to its normal range  Three components of Negative feedback BODY PROCESSES 1. RECEPTOR ▪ sensor that monitors and responds to stimuli ▪ monitors the value of a variable 2. CONTROL CENTER ▪ such as part of the brain, establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained ▪ E.g. Temperature – Hypothalamus ▪ Respiration – Medulla oblongata  Three components of Negative BODY PROCESSES feedback 3. EFFECTOR such as the sweat glands, can change the value of the variable. E.g. HEART – can change the value of the variable BP depends in part of contraction of the heart: as heart rate increases, BP increases, and as heart rate decrease, BP decrease NEGATIVE-FEEDBACK MECAHNISM: Body Temperature  Negative-Feedback Control of Body Temperature  Negative-Feedback Control of Body Temperature  BODY PROCESSES POSITIVE FEEDBACK ▪ Are not homeostatic and rare in healthy individuals ▪ POSITIVE – implies that when a deviation from normal values occurs, the response of the system is to make the deviation even greater ▪ Positive feedback therefore usually creates a cycle leading away from homeostasis and in some cases results in death  BODY PROCESSES METABOLISM – all life sustaining reaction that go on within the body system together 2 TYPES 1. CATABOLISM: complex substances are broken down into simple compound. 2. ANABOLISM: simple compound are used to manufacture materials needed for growth, function and tissue repair Building phase of metabolism  BODY PROCESSES 3. FLUID BALANCE – body is composed of large amount of fluid ▪ Both account for about 60% of an adult weight 2 TYPES: 1. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID- include all body fluids outside the cells. ▪ Bath the cells ▪ Carry nutrients, substances to and from the cells ▪ Transport the nutrients into and out of the cells 2. INTRACELLULAR FLUID- fluid contained within the cell TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN ▪ When you begin to study anatomy and physiology, the number of new words may seem overwhelming. ▪ ETYMOLOGY: origin of new words. ▪ Most of the terms are derived from Latin or Greek. ▪ Words are often modified by adding a prefix or suffix. ▪ For example, the suffix -itis means an inflammation, so appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix.  ANATOMICAL POSITION AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS ▪ ANATOMICAL POSITION: refers to a person standing erect with the feet forward, arms hanging to the sides, and palms of hands facing forward ▪ SUPINE: when lying face upward ▪ PRONE: when lying face downward.  DIRECTIONAL TERMS ▪ Are used to describe the position of structure in relation to other structure or body parts ▪ Superior - towards the head end or upper part of a structure; above ▪ Inferior – away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below  DIRECTIONAL TERMS ▪ Posterior – to the back ▪ Anterior – to the front ▪ Proximal – closest to the trunk or main part of the body ▪ Distal – away from the trunk or the main part of the body DIRECTIONAL TERMS ▪ Medial – towards the middle ▪ Lateral – towards the side ▪ Proximal – closest to the trunk or main part of the body ▪ Distal – away from the trunk or the main part of the body ▪ Superficial – towards the surface ▪ Deep – away from the surface  REGIONS ▪ Central region of the body consists of: ▪ Head, Neck and Trunk ▪ Trunk can be divided into: ▪ Thorax (chest) ▪ Abdomen (region between the thorax and pelvis) ▪ Pelvis (inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips) ▪ Back and Spine ▪ UPPER LIMB: arm, forearm, wrist and hand ▪ LOWER LIMB: thigh, leg, ankle, and foot SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN 1. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) ▪ Liver, Right Kidney, Gallbladder 2. Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) ▪ Spleen, Stomach, Left Kidney 3. Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) ▪ Cecum, Appendix, Right Ovary 4. Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) ▪ Left ovary SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN Abdominal Regions: ▪ Right Hypogastric Region ▪ Epigastric Region ▪ Left Hypochondriac Region ▪ Right Lumbar Region ▪ Umbilical Region ▪ Left Lumbar Region ▪ Right Iliac Region ▪ Hypogastric Region ▪ Left Iliac Region  BODY PLANES ▪ Body planes - refer to any slice or cut through a three- dimensional structure allowing us to visualize relationships between those parts. ▪ CT (Computed Tomography Imaging) and MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) technology use these principles.  BODY PLANES ▪ Sagittal Plane - is a vertical plane (lengthwise) dividing the body or an organ into right and left sections. ▪ Midsagittal Plane (median) - is a vertical plane (lengthwise) dividing the body or an organ into equal right and left halves  BODY PLANES Transverse (Cross- Section, Horizontal) - is a horizontal plane dividing the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) sections.  BODY PLANES Frontal (Coronal) - is a vertical plane dividing the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections. Planes of Section Through an Organ  BODY CAVITIES ▪ openings within the torso which contain organs, protect delicate organs from accidental shocks and bumps ▪ permit the expansion and contraction of organs without disrupting the activities of other organs.  BODY CAVITIES Dorsal Cavity - is located on the posterior/dorsal surface of the body and surrounds the brain and the spinal cord. Spinal (Vertebral) Cavity - is formed by the vertebrae of the spine and surrounds spinal cord. Cranial Cavity - bones of the skull create the cranial cavity to protect the brain.  BODY CAVITIES ▪ Ventral Cavity - located on the anterior/ventral surface of the body and contains thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity  BODY CAVITIES ▪ Thoracic Cavity - is the portion of ventral cavity superior to the diaphragm. ▪ Pleural Cavities - are the spaces surrounding each lung ▪ Mediastinum - is the broad, middle tissue mass of the thoracic cavity dividing the lungs into two cavities. ▪ Pericardial Cavity - is the space in which the heart is located.  BODY CAVITIES ▪ Abdominopelvic Cavity - is portion of the ventral cavity inferior to the diaphragm. ▪ abdominal cavity is the superior portion ▪ contains the organs known as the viscera.  BODY CAVITIES ▪ pelvic cavity - contains the urinary bladder, cecum, appendix, sigmoid colon, rectum, intestines, and the male or female internal reproductive organs.  SEROUS MEMBRANES ▪ SEROUS MEMBRANES - Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities. ▪ imagine pushing your first into an inflated balloon. ▪ inner balloon wall in contact with your fist (organ) represents the visceral serous membrane and the outer part of the balloon wall represents the parietal serous membrane.  SEROUS MEMBRANES ▪ VISCERAL – portion of serous membrane in contact with the organ ▪ PARIETAL – outer part of the membrane ▪ Cavity of space between the visceral and parietal membranes is filled with a thin lubricating film of SEROUS FLUID produced by the membranes ▪ Serous fluid + serous membranes = reduce friction  Location of Serous Membranes: Thoracic cavity contains three serous membranes – lined cavities 1. PERICARDIAL CAVITY ▪ surrounds the heart ▪ contain pericardial fluid and located between the visceral and parietal pericardium A. Frontal section showing the parietal pericardium (blue), visceral pericardium (red), and pericardial cavity.  LOCATION OF SEROUS MEMBRANES 2. PLEURAL CAVITY For each lung surrounded by pleural cavity and covered by visceral pleura Located between visceral and parietal pleura and contains pleural fluid B. Frontal section showing the parietal pleura (blue), visceral pleura (red), and pleural cavities. LOCATION OF SEROUS MEMBRANES 3. PERITONEAL CAVITY ▪ Located within the abdominopelvic cavity ▪ Wall of peritoneum – lined with parietal peritoneum ▪ Organ – covered w/ visceral peritoneum ▪ Space between 2 membranes – is called peritoneal cavity w/ peritoneal fluid LOCATION OF SEROUS MEMBRANES C. Sagittal section through the abdominopelvic cavity showing the parietal peritoneum (blue), visceral peritoneum (red), peritoneal cavity, mesenteries (purple), and retroperitoneal organs LOCATION OF SEROUS MEMBRANES MESENTERY ▪ A double – layered membranes (parietal peritoneum is connected to the visceral peritoneum of many abdominopelvic organs ▪ Anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs  LOCATION OF SEROUS MEMBRANES RETROPERITONEAL Other abdominopelvic organs are more closely attached to the body wall and do not have mesenteries Covered organs by the parietal peritoneum Found behind the peritoneum Ex. Kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, portion of intestines and urinary bladder.  REFERENCES: VanPutte C. et.al. (2019). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology. 10 th edition. New York: Mc Graw Hill Co. Inc.