Unit 5 - Revolutions (1750-1900) PDF

5.1 Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Scientific Revolution 1500s/1600s Intellectual Transformation ○ Knowledge acquired through observation, deduction, experimentation ○ No longer relying on authority of Bible/Church; no divine revelations Challenged the Churc...

5.1 Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Scientific Revolution 1500s/1600s Intellectual Transformation ○ Knowledge acquired through observation, deduction, experimentation ○ No longer relying on authority of Bible/Church; no divine revelations Challenged the Church’s teachings and their authority Scientific Heavyweights ○ Copernicus: earth revolves around sun (heliocentrism vs geocentrism) - Not center of god’s eye! ○ Galileo: Telescope shows an unlimited universe (perfects them!) ○ Newton: Gravity and Laws of Physics; Universe functions on scientific laws ○ Very few women scientists (excluded from universities) Margaret Cavendish (married to a Duke) - wrote 6 scientific texts Maria Winkelmann; discovered a comet; her husband took credit Church’s differing views of Science ○ Many scientists/mathematicians are jesuits (focus on science/education) ○ No scientist rejected Christianity; could have science and faith at the same time ○ Catholic Church opposes new scientific ideas Galileo tried for Heresy, forced to recant; house arrest Giordano bruno burned at the stake The Enlightenment 1600s/1700s/1800s Age of Reason ○ Universe is rational and runs by natural laws that can be understood using logic ○ Rationalism: humans capable of using reason to gain knowledge Can make up their own minds; don’t need Kings or the Church ○ Progressivism: humans can improve society and eliminate problems ○ Liberalism: humans have natural rights and government authority is not absolute, but based on the consent of the governed Enlightenment Heavyweights  ○ Adam Smith: laws of operation for the economy (foundations for capitalism) ○ John Locke: natural rights and social contract challenges divine right of kings (who should have power in a government) ○ Montesquieu: separation of powers in the government ○ Voltaire: religious tolerance challenges the Church; freedom of speech ○ Male Enlightenment thinkers not willing to support feminism Mary Wollstonecraft: women’s equality and women’s rights Olympe de Gouges: women’s rights, abolition of slavery Nationalism Nationalism develops ○ Past: identified with their local village; No connection to larger empire/nation ○ Now: country first, focus on unifying a “nation” with distinct cultures Nationalism creates new nations ○ Unification of Italy 1870; Unification of Germany 1871 ○ Greeks (1829) and Serbs (1867) gain independence from Ottoman Empire ○ Czechs and Hungarians demand more autonomy in Austrian Empire ○ Poles/Ukrainians begin advocating for independence from Russia ○ Irish will seek “home rule” and separation from Great Britain ○ Zionism: Jews seek a homeland in Palestine ○ Lola Rodriguez de Tio: calls for Puerto Rican independence Nationalism creates division ○ Increased rivalries and competition between countries - leads to war – “my nation is better than yours” Europe (WW1) and Americas (Mexican-American War) ○ Governments try to create a “shared culture” that de-values diversity National languages, cultural assimilation, racial ideals Abolition Movement Will Begin in Britain ○ Religious: slavery is a crime in eyes of God ○ Secular: slavery violates ideals of Enlightenment ○ Political: slave revolts in Haiti and Jamaica ○ Economic: slavery no longer essential for economic progress  Slave Economies Resist ○ Slave trade to Brazil/Cuba continues; African nations still sell slaves ○ USA - will take a highly destructive civil war to free slaves (1861-1865) Freedom doesn’t mean equality ○ Former slaves lives often did not improve ○ Exploited, low-paid labor often replaced slave labor (ex. Sharecropping USA) ○ Political rights usually denied; harsh segregation laws Feminism Enlightenment - Equality for All ○ Maternal feminism; Mothers of citizens must be true citizens themselves Women in industrializing nations ○ Growing economic success/middle class allow women more freedoms Seek educational opportunities; take part in social movements ○ 1st wave of Feminism (mostly middle/upper class white women) Women’s Rights Convention - Seneca Falls, NY 1848 Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Declaration of the Rights of Women Main issues; access to education/professions; suffrage ○ Feminism spreads globally Education of women seen as a way to strengthen economy and nations Kartini (Java, Indonesia) - advocates for opening schools for girls Empress Haruko (Japan) - advocates for education of girls and family planning (contraceptives) Huda Sharawi (Egypt) - Egyptian independence and rights for women Reactions to Feminism ○ Feminists viewed as selfish and willing to sacrifice their families ○ Feminism often seen as against nationalism (depopulating nation) 5.2 Atlantic Revolutions American Pre-Revolution Society Class distinctions but society is more open than in Britain - more opportunities, life looks better here!  ○ Lots of available land (after stealing it from the natives) ○ No titled nobility; no established church ○ No legal distinction between commoners and aristocrats - everyone is equal to each other! All free men have the same legal status (excluding black slaves/white women) ○ Less poverty; more economic opportunity than in Britain Good amount of political autonomy and self-government ○ Colonists came to regard autonomy as their birthright No one wanted to break away from British Empire – happy! ○ Advantages; protection in war; access to British market Causes of American Revolution Colonists resent Britain imperial power ○ Seven Years War (1756-1763) – Britain and France fight over colonial land claims Britain wins but forbids colonists from settling in land gained from France Colonists think they should get the land - but can’t move in! ○ Raise taxes on Colonies without offering representation in British Parliament (War = expensive) Stamp Act (1756) – tax on all official paper documents Townshend Act (1767) – taxed goods imported from Britain Tea Act (1773) – granted East India Company a monopoly on selling tea Leads to Boston Tea Party – colonists throw tea in the harbor Enlightenment Ideas Justify Revolution ○ Popular sovereignty: right to government comes from the people ○ Natural rights: humans have rights given to them by God; not the King ○ Consent of the Governed: kings need the permission of their people to rule ○ Social Contract: people agree to give King power; in exchange for protection Colonists take Action ○ 1773: Continental Congress – attempts to “redress grievances” with Britain → rejected  ○ 1776: Thomas Jefferson writes Declaration of Independence Ideas of John Locke Impact of American Revolution Domestic Impact ○ Conservative movement: attempt to preserve liberties, not create new ones → life continues on as it had ○ No large social transformation - NOT really a revolution Political authority stays in the hands of the white male elites Land/possessions are not seized from pro-British Loyalists Slavery remains entrenched in the South Foreign Impact ○ Will serve as a model for future revolutions ○ Declaration of Independence, Constitution, Bill of Rights will be copied by others French Pre-Revolution Society Absolute Monarchy ○ King Louis 14th ruled with absolute powers over all aspects of society ○ Divine Right of Kings - King is chosen by God To defy the King is to defy God Divided in 3 Estates - old Feudal System ○ 1st Estate: Clergy / 2nd Estate: Nobles = (together 2% of population) ○ 3rd Estate: Everyone Else (98% of population) - get the BURDEN Required to pay dues to local lords and tithes to the church as well - triple taxed!! Causes of French Revolution France Bankrupt ○ Seven Years War and helping American Revolution had bankrupted France ○ King Louis 16th calls the Estates General to raise taxes on the 3rd Estate Each Estate (regardless of size) gets 1 vote Clergy and Nobles always outvote 3rd Estate Environmental Factors ○ Rapidly growing population outpaced food supply  ○ Droughts followed by severe winter led to widespread famine and starvation Rising break prices spark Bread Riots 3rd Estate takes Action ○ Organize into the National Assembly claiming sole authority to make laws - we represent the people! ○ Tennis Court Oath to force a new Constitution on King or France ○ Write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights” ○ Partisan citizens storm the Bastille prison to secure gunpowder/weapons - “Independence Day” Domestic Impact - extremely violent Reign of Terror (1793-1794) ○ Maximilien Robespierre takes charge of the Revolution Enemies of revolution executed by guillotine including King and Queen Robespierre himself will be executed himself for leading France into tyranny Huge Social Upheaval (unlike U.S.) ○ Passed law for universal male suffrage ○ Eliminated class distinctions; everyone is a “citizen”; no titles of nobility - ENDED FEUDALISM ○ Religious freedom to Jews and Protestants ○ Abolished slavery (though this is temporary) Women play significant role in Revolution - participate ○ Storming of the Bastille Prison July 1789 (weapons/gunpowder) ○ Women’s March on Versailles Oct 1789 over bread shortages ○ Women make demands for political equality but not granted Olympe De Gouges criticized Revolution for not applying Enlightenment ideals to women; writes Declaration of the Rights of Women (will be executed by guillotine) Foreign Impact Neighboring countries feel threatened by the French Revolution - maybe my people might chop off my head… ○ Declare war on France to try and return the monarchy  General Napoleon Bonaparte seizes power in 1799 ○ Declares himself Emperor of France Campaign of conquest to spread Revolution in Europe (Spain, Netherlands, Prussia, etc.) Places his relatives on the thrones of European countries Creates the largest European Empire since the Romans Eventually countries of Europe get acts together - Napoleon defeated after failed invasion of Russia; exiled to island of Elba ○ Monarchy restored to France under Louis 18th Napoleon will escape Elba and rules for another 100 days Defeated by coalition led by British/Prussian forces at Waterloo 1815 Congress of Vienna ○ Russia, Austria, Britain, France meet; led by Prussia (Klemens von Metternich) ○ France must give up conquered lands; Kings are returned to their thrones ○ Concert of Europe - series of alliances to prevent future revolutions - hit reset button, took everything away! Haiti Pre-Revolution Society Saint Domingue is wealthiest colony in Caribbean ○ Produced 40% of world’s sugar; 50% of world coffee Heavily tiered social structure based on race, class, gender - large slave population ○ Grand blancs: plantation owners, merchants, lawyers ○ Petit blancs: poor whites (~40,000 of grand and petit whites) ○ Gens de couleur libres: free people of color, usually mixed race (~30,000) ○ African SLaves (~500,000) Causes of Haitian Revolution Slavery conditions ○ Worst in the world; 50% death rate The French Revolution - inspiration; every class sees revolution as something different, resent each other’s wants ○ Grand blancs want greater autonomy and less economic restrictions  ○ Petit blancs want equality of citizenship for all free people regardless of race ○ Slaves: saw French Rev as a promise of personal freedom Enslaved Peoples take Action ○ Rumor that French King declared an end to slavery Slaves will burn 1,000 plantations and kill hundreds of whites/mixed race ○ Toussaint L’Ouverture, former slave, will lead the slave army Organized the military to fight the French, Spanish, and British Will defeat an attempt by Napoleon to re establish control Impact of Revolution Domestic Impact ○ Revolution will be incredibly violent and bloody on both sides ○ End of slavery Slaves became equal, free, and independent citizens – get land! Defined citizenship as “black”; disallowed citizenship for most whites → you’re not black, you gotta get the HELL out! ○ Economy is based on sugar plantations is destroyed Land is redistributed among former slaves and free blacks Foreign Impact ○ Will conquer Spanish portion of island, freeing the slaves there as well ○ Only completely successful slave revolt in world history - Other countries/societies afraid Slave owners in other colonies are worried slave revolts will spread Inspire the Great Jamaica Revolt 1832; 60,000 slaves attack plantations ○ Temporary expansions of slavery (other colonies, Cuba, increase sugar production) ○ Napoleon sells the French territory of Louisiana to the USA Number of “slave states” will be carved from this territory Latin American Revolutions 1811-1830 Colonial Society Pre-Revolution ○ Hierarchical social structure based on race (Casta System) ○ Tupac Amary Rebellion - native rebellion  Led by man who claimed descent from last Inca Emperor Failed - but reminded creoles that white are vastly outnumbered Causes of Revolution ○ 1808: Napoleon conquered Spain and Portugal, deposing their monarchs Forces Lat American colonies into independence - Americanism (promises made to slaves, all equal, nationalism → not kept) ○ Mexican Revolution 1810-1811 Led by Catholic Priests: Father Miguel Hidalgo and Father Jose Morelos Rebellion crushed by creole elites for being socially radical 1821; creoles/clergy alliance - more socially conservative independence – wanted to change things, but NOT flip-flop society – hmm good idea… ○ South American Revolutions 1810 Led by General Simon Bolivar and General Jose de San Martin Frees Venezuela (civil war topples new republic) 1819: “El Libertador” frees most of South America (except Brazil) Impact of Latin American Revolution Domestic Impact ○ Independence process take 2x as long due to class, race, regional divisions ○ Leaders create alliances on nativism - all those born in Americas are Americanos Difficult because creoles and mestizo considered themselves Spanish Leaders promised freedom and social advancement to lower ranks Few of these promises will be kept Women heavily involved in revolutions but no political/social gains ○ 1824: Gran Colombia - Bolivar tries to unite all liberated colonies into one nation Split into 4 nations (Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador) S. America descends into civil war and power struggles Foreign Impact  ○ N. America and S. America switch positions N. America = wealthy, industrialized, democratic S. America = underdeveloped, impoverished, undemocratic 5.3 Industrial Revolution Begins 2nd Agricultural Revolution Change in farming techniques! ○ Fertilizer; Crop Rotation (keeps soil healthy); Selective breeding = higher yield seeds ○ Better farming equipment = higher productivity Cotton gin; seed drill ○ Result: kept food prices low; less labor needed for farms Don’t need as many people on farms, huge population boost! Enclosure Movement ○ Before: small, dispersed strips of farmland used communally - “village’s land”, everyone could use it ○ Consolidation of communal fields into large plots individually owned Enclosed with walls, fences, or hedges to prevent communal use - British Enclosure Movement (1700s-1800s) ○ After: forced small farmers off their land; moved to cities to find work ○ Result: created the workforce for factories of Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution Why Great Britain? ○ Many natural resources (coal, rivers, access to sea) ○ Population explosion = more workers AND more demand for goods 1700: 5 million; 1800: 9 million ○ Well developed banking system = loans to entrepreneurs, legal private protections ○ Stable government and Royal navy protects transport of trade ○ Enclosure Movement provides a huge low skilled labor force ○ NO huge revolutions! (stable government!) ○ Legal protections of private property 1st Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) ○ Begins in Great Britain Textile Industry (1700’s) - world leader in textiles/fabrics ○ Drew upon ideas/developments of Scientific Revolution  ○ Cottage industry to Factory System ○ New technologies (steam engine, cotton gin, spinning jenny) 2nd Industrial Revolution (1870-1914) ○ Focused more in United States, Russia, Japan, Germany, Ottoman Empire ○ A technological revolution and energy revolution Electricity, Petroleum, Internal combustion engine Steel, skyscrapers, automobiles Innovation and Advancements Energy Revolution ○ More powerful machines = more production 1st Ind Rev relied on water, wind coal 2nd Ind Rev will replace with oil, natural gas, gasoline New fuel sources caused significant environmental damage New technology ○ New machines in textile industry Cotton gin: machine for cleaning cotton seeds Spinning jenny/spinning mule: machines for spinning wool/cotton Flying Shuttle: allowed for automatic machine looms ○ Advancements in Iron to Steel Burning coal heats iron to higher temps, creating stronger steel Bessemer Process: forcing air through molten iron to remove impurities Stronger steel used for bridges, railroads, factories, skyscrapers ○ Telegraph allows for rapid, long distance communication Transportation Revolution ○ Railroads, Steamships makes long distance travel easier Increased trade and migration, led to development of interior lands 5.9 Social Hierarchies and Standards of Living Social Revolution Aristocracy ○ Wealthy landowners; No benefit from industrialization ○ Shift from agriculture to factories meant loss of money/power  Middle Class/Bourgeoisie ○ Upper: Factory/Mine Owners, Bankers, Merchants ○ Middle: doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, other professionals ○ Lower: clerks, bank tellers, hotel staff, secretaries, other service jobs ○ Benefitted the most from industrialization ○ Able to use business success to compete with aristocracy Working Class/Proletariat ○ Manual workers in mines, ports, factories ○ Largest chunk of British society ○ Suffered the most from industrialization Low wages, unsafe working conditions, long hours (12-16 hrs) Unsanitary and cramped living conditions (tenements) ○ Poor treatment of working class will lead to rise of unions and social unrest Conditions in Cities Rapid urbanization led to overcrowding Living conditions in cities - not built to handle that many people! ○ Lacked proper sanitation; Frequent epidemics ○ Inadequate (often polluted) water supplies 1853: John Snow and Broad Street Cholera epidemic 1858 Great Stink of London ○ Crowded tenements Single family homes converted into multiple apartments Bldgs extremely narrow (25x100) and multiple stories Less than foot of space between bldgs - little light/ventilation Women Middle Class Women ○ Women’s roles limited to wives, mothers homemakers ○ Expected to create a haven and refuge for their capitalist husbands ○ Ideology of Domesticity / Cult of True Womanhood Private sphere is proper domain for women; not public Women should be detached from paid work By late 1800’s, entering workforce as teachers, clerical, nursing Working Class Women ○ Textile mills preferred women/children as employees  Could pay them less (½ or ⅓ of men’s pay) Considered more suitable for repetitive tasks Men as managers, children/women as employees ○ Many worked as domestic servants ○ Often had to take one extra work in home as well Boarders, laundry, sewing Child Labor Low pay meant extra income needed (in families) Reasons to hire children ○ Less pay (often 10-20% less than what adult men would earn) ○ More obedient (often whipped/beaten) ○ Small stature meant they could fit inside machinery/tight spaces Unjam textile machines (often injured/broke bones/lose fingers) Coal mines (develop respiratory diseases/die in cave ins) The Push to End Child Labor ○ Social unrest leads to reform movements ○ 1819: Cotton Factory Act - limited child labor to 12 hrs a day ○ 1833: Factory Acts - illegal for children under age 9 to work; children under 13 could not work more than 9 hrs a day ○ 1842: Mines Act - minimum age of coal workers is age 10 5.7 and 5.8 Reactions to Industrial Revolution Capitalism vs Socialism Capitalism: Private ownership of means of production (mines, factories, railroads) – government can’t really interfere, leave them alone ○ Adam Smith: Wealth of Nations (book, 1776) - RADICAL ideas Laissez Faire: gov’t should not interfere with business/economy Invisible Hand: people acting in self-interest indirectly to promote good of economy His ideas challenged the previous theory of mercantilism (exploited colonies and government controlled trade) Socialism/Communism: Communal/State ownership of means of production ○ Karl Marx/Friedrich Engels: Communist Manifesto book (1848) Criticism of Industrial Revolution in Britain – point out most obvious flaws  Capitalism doomed to collapse in a worker (proletariat) revolt and be replaced by a classless society, ending conflict between rich and poor - violent idea New Political Parties Develop - peaceful ○ Britain = Labour Party: working class political party advocated for peaceful, democratic transition to socialism (rejecting Marx’s idea of class struggle) ○ Germany = Social Democracy Party: social/economic justice through democratic elections without violent revolution Reform Movements in Britain - mostly peaceful, democratic process - slow, but things are improving! Unions ○ Workers joining together to use numbers as source of strength ○ Legalized in 1824; workers negotiate for better wages and improved conditions ○ 1842: General Strike, prompted by wage cuts; ½ million miners and factory workers Suffrage expanded - Right to Vote (used to only be land-owning aristocracy) ○ 1832 Reform Bill - expanded right to vote to middle class men ○ 1918: universal male suffrage; 1928: universal suffrage (including women) ○ As workers gained right to vote, politicians had incentive to pass new laws + listen to those workers’ demands Child Labor ○ 1918: Cotton Factory Act - limited child labor to 12 hrs a day ○ 1833: Factory Act - children under age 9 cannot work ○ 1842: Mines Act - minimum age of coal workers is age 10 Health and Safety ○ 1875: Public Health Act - required running water/plumbing in all housing Drinking water needs to be safe; sewage disposed of properly Education ○ 1880: Education Act - education mandatory for all children ages 5-10 Migration Europeans in Motion  ○ Internally: half of Europe’s population is on the move Migration from countryside to the cities Russia: 13 million former serfs migrate to Central Asia/Siberia ○ Globally 20% of population of Europe will leave Most will go to the Americas (US, Brazil, Argentina) Creation of Settler Colonies in Australia and New Zealand Push Factors ○ Displacement of farming (Enclosure Acts) ○ Poverty and poor living standards in urban areas (tenements) Pull Factors ○ Demand for labor/workers ○ Availability of cheap land in Americas ○ Faster/cheaper transportation (railroads and steamships) 5.4/5.6 Industrial Revolution Spreads Industrialization Spreads United States ○ Begins in textile factories (1820’s); Gov’t stays (mostly) hands off ○ New technology aids production; Interchangeable parts, assembly line ○ Widening gap between rich / middle class / working class ○ Progressives advocate reforms so Socialism (Communism, Marxism) never becomes popular Germany ○ Construction of railways fuelled rapid expansion of coal and steel industries ○ Unification of Germany in 1871 further accelerated economic growth - nationalism! Leaders of the 2nd Ind Rev; focus on chemicals and mechanical engineering (synthetic dyes, vulcanization) Russia - government/state RUNS the industrial revolution (run by an absolute monarch) ○ 1720’s: Peter the Great established factories and iron/copper mines ○ 1861: Alexander ii freed serfs creating labor force for factories (finally got rid of it, last one) ○ 1890’s: Russian Ind Rev takes-off; Focus on railroads and heavy industry  Concentrated in just a few major cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev) ○ No legal unions, no political parties Workers support radical socialism of Karl Marx; large-scale strikes - VIOLENT REVOLUTION Industrialization in Ottoman Empire Defensive Modernization ○ Strategies to strengthen economies, militaries, and political systems in response to the pressures of Western imperialism and industrialization The Sick Man of Europe ○ Ottoman Empire politically and economically weakened Economic competition from Europe and manufactured goods Losing territory to Christian/European world Nationalism causes groups to want more independence/leave empire Tanzimat Reforms (reorganization) 1839-1876 ○ Sultan Selim iii updates army with European techniques Opposition by Janissaries; Selim ii overthrown and murdered ○ Focus on factories producing cloth, paper, armaments ○ Western style law codes; Non-Muslims gain equal rights under law ○ Introduction of new tech: telegraphs, steamships, railroads ○ Schools for girls “Rustiyes” creates, vocational schools to train midwives ○ Obstruction from religious leaders who opposed changes to Islamic law – not completely successful, half-hearted Failed Industrialization in Egypt Muhammad Ali pasha becomes ruler of Egypt - 1805 ○ Imported Western arms; Hired French officers to train army ○ Increased cotton production to sell to British factories Used money to fund Egyptian industrialization and textile factories ○ Industrialization fails Focus on single crop (cotton) leaves Egypt vulnerable to price fluctuations  Egypt unable to compete with British textiles; end up in massive debt (tried to close off trade, Britain forces them to reopen) Suez Canal - completed in 1869 ○ Built by French company partnered with Egypt Connected Mediterranean Sea with Red Sea Important commercial/military link between Europe and Asia ○ Debt will force Egyptians to sell their share of Suez Canal to British Industrialization in Japan Japanese Isolation leads to American Intrusion ○ 1853: United States sends Commodore Perry and “black ships” Demands opening of Japan to foreign trade; will return in 1 year Shogun signs Treaty of Kanagawa - 1854 (open borders) ○ Triggers civil war in Japan by those who do not support Shogun Meiji Restoration - claim they are restoring the power of Emperor Meiji (overthrow Shogun) Seek to save Japan from foreign domination by westernizing Japan Japanese Modernization 1868-1894 ○ Introduced western technology: telegraph, railroads, electric lights ○ Western-style APPEARANCES - clothes, uniforms, hairstyles become popular ○ State owned industrialization program “Labor-intensive” industrialization instead of machinery intensive Zaibatsus - vertically integrated business conglomerates China Attempts Modernization Self-Strengthening Movement 1861-1895 ○ Attempts to modernize China by adopting Western technology and military New examination system; foreign language schools Industrial factories (textiles and steel); expanded coal mines Modern upgrades to military; agricultural repairs Defensive Modernization Fails ○ Qing government weakening; will not support movement ○ Landlord class afraid of losing power/privileges ○ Xenophobes in bureaucracy wanted nothing to do with Western methods ○ No political or social reform to accompany economic reform ○ China will lose military conflict with Japan, thus proving movement a failure