Global Trade and Historical Empires PDF

rade Entrepôts Entrepôts were major trading hubs where goods from different regions were exchanged. These cities or ports acted as middle points in global trade networks. 1.​ Strait of Malacca ○​ Why important?​ It connects the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea, makin...

rade Entrepôts Entrepôts were major trading hubs where goods from different regions were exchanged. These cities or ports acted as middle points in global trade networks. 1.​ Strait of Malacca ○​ Why important?​ It connects the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea, making it a key route for Asian trade. Merchants from India, China, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia passed through it, trading goods like spices, silk, and porcelain. Whoever controlled the Strait could influence global trade. 2.​ Cairo ○​ A major hub in North Africa that connected Mediterranean trade with goods coming from the Indian Ocean and sub-Saharan Africa. It was crucial for spices, gold, and textiles, with its location linking Europe to Asia and Africa. 3.​ Kilwa ○​ A city on the East African coast that was part of the Indian Ocean trade network. Kilwa traded gold, ivory, and slaves from Africa to Asia in exchange for goods like ceramics, silk, and spices from the East. Zheng He 1.​ Background ○​ A Chinese admiral during the Ming Dynasty (early 1400s). He was a Muslim eunuch, which gave him a unique role in Chinese politics and diplomacy. 2.​ Nature of Voyages ○​ Zheng He commanded a fleet of massive ships (the largest in the world at the time) on seven voyages. These expeditions reached Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa. The goal wasn’t conquest but to demonstrate Chinese power, bring back tribute, and expand trade. 3.​ Why the voyages stopped? ○​ After Zheng He’s death, new Chinese leaders shifted priorities. They thought the voyages were too expensive and wanted to focus on defending China’s northern border from nomadic invasions. Columbian Exchange 1.​ Where is the term from?  ○​ Coined by historian Alfred W. Crosby in 1972 to describe the massive exchange of plants, animals, people, and diseases between the Americas and the rest of the world after Columbus's voyages. 2.​ What did Dr. Crosby blame for the decimation of indigenous populations? ○​ Crosby argued that European diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza were the primary cause. Native populations had no immunity to these diseases, leading to catastrophic death rates. Venice and Genoa 1.​ Trade relations ○​ Both cities were major trading powers in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages. ○​ Venice: Focused on trade with the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world (Middle East and North Africa). They controlled spice trade routes from Asia. ○​ Genoa: Specialized in trade with western Europe and had some involvement in North African trade. It also acted as a financial hub. Causes of European Expansion 1.​ Why did Europe expand in the 15th century? ○​ Economic motives: Desire for wealth, especially from spices, gold, and other luxury goods from Asia and Africa. ○​ Religious motives: Spread Christianity and counter Islamic expansion. ○​ Technological advances: Improved ships (caravels), navigation tools (like the compass), and maps made long voyages possible. ○​ Political competition: European states like Spain and Portugal competed for power and influence. 1453: Why is this date important? ​ It marks the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire. ​ Why does it matter?​ The fall disrupted traditional trade routes between Europe and Asia, as the Ottomans now controlled key passageways. This forced Europeans to look for alternative sea routes to Asia, sparking the Age of Exploration. Chapter 17: Islamic Empires Study Terms 1.​ Ottomans: A powerful Islamic empire based in modern-day Turkey that lasted from 1299 to 1923. Known for its military conquests and cultural achievements. 2.​ Devshirme: A system where Christian boys were taken, converted to Islam, and trained as soldiers or administrators. 3.​ Janissaries: Elite Ottoman soldiers, originally recruited through the devshirme system, who played a key role in military conquests. 4.​ Ulama: Islamic scholars who were influential in law, education, and maintaining religious traditions. 5.​ Sepoys: Indian soldiers employed by European powers, particularly the British, during their colonial expansion in South Asia. Short Answer Prompts 1.​ How were the three Islamic empires established, and what sorts of governments did they set up? ○​ Ottoman Empire: Established through military conquests (e.g., Constantinople in 1453), it was a centralized monarchy with strong Islamic laws. ○​ Safavid Empire: Built on Shi’a Islam and led by Shahs, they used religion to unify Persia. ○​ Mughal Empire: Founded by Babur in India, it blended Islamic and Indian traditions and ruled through a strong centralized bureaucracy. 2.​ What cultural advances occurred under the rule of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires? ○​ Ottomans: Architecture (e.g., Hagia Sophia), literature, and the arts flourished. ○​ Safavids: Persian carpet weaving and miniature painting. ○​ Mughals: Iconic structures like the Taj Mahal and advancements in Indian art and music. Chapter 18: Early Modern Europe Study Terms 1.​ Jesuits: Catholic missionaries who played a major role in Counter-Reformation efforts. 2.​ Thirty Years’ War: A religious and political conflict (1618-1648) in Europe that ended with the Peace of Westphalia. 3.​ Mercantilism: Economic system where colonies exist to benefit the mother country through trade and resources. 4.​ Republicanism: A government without a monarch, where power rests with elected officials. 5.​ Constitutionalism: A system where the ruler's power is limited by law (e.g., England after the Glorious Revolution).  6.​ Cossacks: Eastern European warrior communities known for their independence and role in Russia’s expansion. Short Answer Prompts 1.​ What was absolutism, and how did it evolve in Western and Central Europe? ○​ A system where monarchs held total control (e.g., Louis XIV of France). It evolved as rulers centralized power, weakened nobles, and aligned with the church. 2.​ What were alternatives to absolutism in early modern Europe? ○​ England’s constitutional monarchy (e.g., after 1688) and the Dutch republicanism were examples of governments that limited royal power. Chapter 19: Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Study Terms 1.​ Copernican hypothesis: The idea that the Earth orbits the Sun, challenging the Church’s geocentric view. 2.​ Law of universal gravitation: Newton’s theory that all objects attract each other based on mass and distance. 3.​ Empiricism: A method emphasizing observation and experimentation. 4.​ General will: Rousseau’s idea that the collective good outweighs individual interests. 5.​ Economic liberalism: Adam Smith’s belief in free markets and minimal government interference. 6.​ Salons: Social gatherings, often led by women, where Enlightenment ideas were discussed. 7.​ Enclosure: The privatization of common lands in England, which transformed agriculture. 8.​ Public sphere: Spaces where citizens discussed politics and society, promoting democracy. Short Answer Prompts 1.​ What intellectual and social changes occurred as a result of the Scientific Revolution? ○​ Shift from religious explanations to scientific inquiry. New inventions (e.g., telescopes) and theories (e.g., gravity) reshaped thought. 2.​ How did Enlightenment thinkers address issues of cultural and social difference and political power? ○​ They emphasized reason, equality, and tolerance. Thinkers like Voltaire critiqued absolutism, while Montesquieu supported checks and balances. Chapter 20: Africa and the Slave Trade Study Terms 1.​ Chattel: Enslaved people treated as property. 2.​ Age-grade systems: African social structures that grouped people by age for responsibilities and rights. 3.​ Swahili: A coastal culture and language blending African, Arab, and Asian influences. 4.​ Shore trading: Europeans trading goods along the African coast rather than venturing inland. 5.​ Sorting: A trade practice where goods were "sorted" by European traders in exchange for enslaved people. 6.​ Cowrie shells: Used as currency in West African trade. Short Answer Prompts 1.​ What type of economic, social, and political structures were found in the kingdoms and states along the west coast and in the Sudan? ○​ West Africa had complex trade systems (e.g., salt and gold) and kingdoms like Mali. Sudan had Islamic states that combined trade and religious governance. 2.​ How did the arrival of Europeans affect East African coast states? ○​ Swahili city-states were drawn into global trade but weakened by European dominance. Ethiopia resisted colonial incursions by leveraging its Christian identity. Chapter 17: How were the three Islamic empires established, and what sorts of governments did they set up? The Ottoman Empire expanded through military conquest, including the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It set up a highly centralized monarchy, ruled by a sultan, with a strong Islamic legal system and efficient bureaucracy. The Safavid Empire established itself in Persia through religious unity under Shi’a Islam, which differentiated it from its Sunni neighbors. Safavid shahs used religion and military power to centralize authority. The Mughal Empire in India began with Babur's victory at the Battle of Panipat in 1526. Its government blended Islamic and local traditions, with a centralized administration that emphasized tolerance, especially under Akbar. Chapter 18: What was absolutism, and how did it evolve in Western and Central Europe? Absolutism is a system of government where the monarch has nearly unlimited power, justified by the divine right of kings. In France, absolutism evolved under Louis XIV, who centralized power by weakening nobles and creating a strong bureaucracy. He famously stated, "I am the state." In Austria, absolutism developed as the Habsburgs reconsolidated their empire after the Thirty Years' War, focusing on a strong army and Catholic unity. In Prussia, Frederick William built a militarized state to enforce absolutist rule. These efforts reflected a broader trend of centralizing power to counter external threats and maintain stability. Chapter 19: What intellectual and social changes occurred as a result of the Scientific Revolution? The Scientific Revolution shifted European thought from religious explanations to scientific reasoning. Thinkers like Copernicus challenged the geocentric model, while Newton formulated the laws of universal gravitation. These discoveries encouraged a reliance on observation, experimentation, and mathematics. Socially, the revolution weakened the Church's authority over intellectual life and promoted the idea that individuals could seek truth through reason. The creation of scientific societies, like the Royal Society, fostered collaboration and the spread of ideas, influencing the Enlightenment's emphasis on progress and rationality. Chapter 20: What type of economic, social, and political structures were found in the kingdoms and states along the west coast and in the Sudan? West African kingdoms like Mali and Songhai were economically powerful due to control of trans-Saharan trade routes, which dealt in gold, salt, and slaves. Politically, these states were often centralized, with leaders like Mansa Musa using wealth to solidify their rule. Socially, Islamic influence shaped education and culture, especially in cities like Timbuktu. In the Sudan, states often combined Islamic governance with traditional African structures. Trade and religious scholarship helped these societies connect to broader networks in North Africa and the Middle East. Chapter 16: Why is the Strait of Malacca an important trading spot? The Strait of Malacca is a narrow waterway connecting the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. It was a key trade route for merchants from India, China, and Southeast Asia, enabling the exchange of spices, silk, and other luxury goods. Its strategic location meant whoever controlled it could dominate global trade in the region. Historically, it was vital to the economic success of empires like Srivijaya and later became contested by European powers like the Portuguese.