ELT 201A Process, Style, and Strategies PDF

UNIT III. Process, Style, and Strategies ELT 201A Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning Group 4: Engallado, Rojan Rojo, Jessica Marie Torente, Kim...

UNIT III. Process, Style, and Strategies ELT 201A Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning Group 4: Engallado, Rojan Rojo, Jessica Marie Torente, Kim Tabalina, Justine Paparon, Nikka Jane Villorente, Verna Crissa Gilongos, Rose Peniero, Allen Joy Patriarca, Jelyn Perales, Lei Lindsay BSED English 2A  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies REFLECTIVITY AND IMPULSIVITY figures (people, ships, buildings, etc.), the Reporter: Rojan J. Engallado drawing that matches the criterion figure. It is common for us to show in our personalities Most of the research to date on this cognitive certain tendencies toward reflectivity sometimes style has looked at American, monolingual, and impulsivity at other tunes. Psychological English-speaking children. studies have been conducted to determine the degree to which, in the cognitive domain, a A few studies have related R/I to second person tends to make either a quick or gambling language learning: (Impulsive) guess at an answer to a problem; 1. Doron (1973) or a slower, more calculated (Reflective) Study Focus/Sample: Adult Learners of decision. David Ewlng (1977) referred to two ESL in the United States styles that are closely related to the Findings: Reflective students were slower reflectivity/impulsivity (R/I) dimension; systematic but more accurate than impulsive students and intuitive styles. in reading. 2. Abraham (1981) Systematic thinkers tend to weigh all Study Focus/Sample: Adult ESL the considerations in a problem, work out Students all the loop- holes, and then, after Findings: Reflection was weakly related extensive reflection, venture a solution. to performance on a proofreading task. An intuitive style implies an approach in 3. Jamieson (1992) which a person makes a number of Study Focus/Sample: Adult ESL different gambles on the basis of Learners "hunches," with possibly several Findings: "Fast-accurate" learners, or successive gambles before a solution is good guessers, were better language achieved. learners as measured by the standardized Test of English as a Foreign Language According to Kagan (1965), the implications for (TOEFL), but warned against assuming language acquisition are numerous, it has been that impulsivity always implies accuracy. found that children who are conceptually Some of her subjects were fast and reflective tend to make fewer errors in reading inaccurate. than impulsive children. However, Goodman (1970) stated that impulsive persons are usually CLASSROOM CONNECTION faster readers, and eventually master the Research Findings: Joan Jamieson's (1992) "psycholinguistic guessing game" of reading so study of Field of Independence/Dependence that their impulsive style of reading may not (FID) and reflectivity showed that the R/I style necessarily deter comprehension. In another (slow and fast problem solving/responding study conducted by Kagan, Pearson, & Welch styles) alone did not account for success on the (1966), inductive reasoning was found to be more TOEFL. She discovered that some students effective with reflective persons, suggesting that were fast and inaccurate and others slow and generally reflective persons could benefit more accurate, and concluded that the combination from inductive learning situations. of speed and accuracy led to success on timed, standardized tests. Matching Familiar Figures Test (Kagan, Teaching Implications: Time is a more 1965; revised by Cairns & Cammock, 1989) important factor in language success than you -Used on all research on R/I. might at first think. All classroom contexts -Subjects are required to find, among require students to work under timed numerous slightly different drawings of Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies (e.g., learning better from diagrams) and auditory conditions: tests, reading, writing (composing), (e.g., learning better by listening). responding to listening, and speaking fluently Korean Students: The study found that Korean are all subject to time constraints. How has learners were more visually oriented your own degree of R/I helped or hindered compared to native English-speaking Americans. your learning of a second language in the This means that Korean students preferred using classroom? Are you fast and accurate as well, visual materials like charts, graphs, and written and if not, how might you develop both speed text to support their learning. and accuracy? Japanese Students: Interestingly, Japanese students showed a low preference for R/I has some important considerations for auditory learning. They were the least inclined classroom second language learning and to learn through listening compared to other teaching. Teachers tend to judge mistakes too groups, especially when compared to Chinese and harshly, especially in the case of a learner with an Arabic students. impulsive style who may be more willing than a reflective person to gamble at an answer. On the Gender: Male and female learners might show other hand, a reflective person may require different style preferences. patience from the teacher, who must allow more Length of time in the U.S.: The longer learners time for the student to struggle with responses. It stayed in the U.S., the more likely their learning is also conceivable that those with impulsive styles might adapt. styles may go through a number of rapid Academic field of study: Different fields (e.g., transitions of semi grammatical stages of SLA, science vs. humanities) might influence preferred with reflective persons tending to remain longer learning approaches. at a particular stage with "larger" leaps from Educational level: Higher education levels stage to stage. might also correlate with specific learning style preferences. VISUAL, AUDITORY, AND KINESTHETIC STYLES 2. Expanding the Research (Reid, 1995) Reporter: Jessica Marie B. Rojo Later studies included kinesthetic 1. Learning Style Preferences: An styles, confirming the need for attention Overview to diverse learning preferences in the Learners often exhibit preferences for visual, classroom. auditory, or kinesthetic learning inputs: Kinesthetic learners prefer learning Visual learners: Prefer reading, charts, through physical activities and and visual aids. hands-on experiences. They engage Auditory learners: Learn best through best when they can actively move, listening to lectures or audio materials. manipulate objects, or participate in Kinesthetic learners: Thrive with demonstrations. hands-on activities and movement-based tasks. 3. Key Takeaways from the 1995 2. Cross-Cultural Differences in Research: Learning Styles (Reid, 1987) The inclusion of kinesthetic styles revealed that In Reid's study, she surveyed adult learners of students have diverse learning preferences English as a Second Language (ESL) to determine beyond just visual and auditory methods. The their preferred learning styles. She used a findings emphasized the importance of addressing self-report questionnaire where participants rated various styles for effective teaching. Incorporating statements reflecting different styles, like visual activities like role-playing and hands-on experiments can better support kinesthetic Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies learners who benefit from movement and tactile The move toward autonomy aligns with engagement. broader societal trends promoting 4. Cautions for Teachers self-help and self-direction. Style Measurement Challenges: Language teaching began encouraging Self-check questionnaires may not always learners to “take charge” of their learning, accurately measure learning styles creating personalized paths to success (Ehrman & Leaver, 2003). (Brown, 1989). Flexibility and Adaptation: Learning 4. Developing Autonomy through Strategies styles are preferences, not fixed traits; Developing autonomy requires teaching students can adjust based on context. learners strategies for effective language Cultural Influences: Learning styles acquisition (Wenden, 1992). may be shaped by cultural background, Many students enter language classes prompting sensitivity to students' linguistic unaware of the process of learning a and cultural heritage (Wintergerst, language or how to use strategies DeCapua, & Itzen, 2001; Oxford & effectively. Anderson, 1995). 5. Research on Autonomy and Strategy Use 5. Practical Implications for Educators Research highlights the importance of Encourage learner autonomy: Help autonomy in successful language learning students become aware of their learning (e.g., Schmenk, 2005; Benson, 2001). preferences, strengths, and weaknesses. Language programs increasingly stress the Promote self-awareness: Guide learners importance of learners taking to identify their styles and adapt responsibility for their own learning. accordingly. Implement inclusive strategies: Design AUTONOMY, AWARENESS, AND ACTION classroom activities that cater to various (CONTINUATION) Reporter: Kim Torente learning styles. The literature on the topic raises some caution 1. The Three "A’s" of Learner flags. Development Autonomy, Awareness, and Action are Schmenk (2005) appropriately described the non key concepts in second language learning, universality of the concept of autonomy, and linked to the shift toward learner-centered Pennycook (199?) warned us about the potential language teaching (Wenden, 2002). cultural imperialism involved in assuming 2. Shifts in Language Teaching Methods every culture equally values and promotes Historically, language teaching was autonomy, especially in educational institutions. teacher-centered: ○ The teacher directed activities like For language teaching in sub-Saharan Africa, translation, memorization, and Sonaiya (2002, p. 106) questioned “the global repetition. validity of the so-called autonomous method of In the 1970s, learner autonomy gained language learning, which has obvious origins in importance: European and North American traditions of ○ Emphasis shifted to activities that individualism.” encourage learners to take initiative, such as group work, pair However, some recent studies are more practice, and language use outside encouraging. Underscoring the need for teachers the classroom. to be sensitive to the cultural background of 3. Promoting Learner Autonomy students. Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies Carter (2001) suggested that while learners in occasions for learners to develop a metacognitive Trinidad and Tobago traditionally rely heavily on awareness of their ongoing learning. In fact, a teachers as managers of their learning, autonomy whole new journal. Language Awareness has can nevertheless be fostered through what she been devoted to the concept, and research described as a "context-sensitive" model (p. findings are coming in. 26). Lightbown and Spada (2000), for example, Similarly, Spratt, Humphreys, and Chan (2002) showed that English learners in Quebec displayed found that autonomy could be promoted among no awareness of their own intuitions about learners in Hong Kong, as long as an appropriate language learning, and suggested further level of motivation was present. Schmenk (2005, attempts to help students to increase awareness. p. 115) recommended a “glocatization” (a combination of both global and local Simard and Wong (2004) described an considerations) of the concept of autonomy in awareness-of-language program in the United non-Western cultures, one that involves “a critical Kingdom which helped students to engage in awareness of specific cultural backdrops and metalinguistic reflection. Nakatani (2005) trained impacts” as teachers involve students in English learners in Japan to focus explicitly on autonomous learning. oral production strategies, which resulted in improved performance in speaking. Rosa and Being closely linked to the concept of autonomy is Leow (2004) found that learners of Spanish as a the demand for learners to become aware of second language in the United States showed their own learning processes. improved performance under conditions of awareness-raising. Do you remember the first foreign language What we are learning from these studies is that course you ever took? learners can indeed benefit from raised awareness of their own processes of To what extent did your teacher or your learning. Undoubtedly, as we will see in Chapter textbook help you to become aware of what 9, there is an optimal level of awareness language learning was all about? (Lightbown & Spada, 1990) that serves learners. Were you offered activities that would help you In other words, too much awareness, too much monitor your own learning process? explicit focus on grammar, or too much devotion to rules, coupled with not enough intuitive, Did those activities help you assess your own subconscious communication, will smother strengths and weaknesses? learners' yearning to simply use language, unfettered by over attention to correctness. But Did your teacher suggest strategies that might some levels of awareness are clearly-warranted, help you become more successful? and in this chapter we will speak to the issue of strategic awareness: the conscious application of Until recently, few courses in languages provided appropriate strategies. such opportunities for learners to become aware of what language learning was all about and what The final “A” in this section is simply a reminder they could do to become better learners. to all that awareness without action will be relatively useless. Once learners can become Now, with the backdrop of a good deal of aware of their predispositions, their styles, and research on awareness and “consciousness their strengths and weaknesses, they can then raising,” language programs are offering more take appropriate action in the form of a plethora Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies of strategies that are available to them. Not all strategies are appropriate for all learners. A 1. Find their own way, taking charge of their learner who, for example, is already aware of an learning. ambiguity tolerant, right-brain style surely will not 2. Organize information about language. need a battery of new strategies to open up, to 3. Are creative, developing a "feel" for the be calm in the face of a storm of language by experimenting with its grammar and incomprehensible language, or to take in the big words. picture. Such strategies are already naturally in 4. Make their own opportunities for practice using place. the language inside and outside the classroom. 5. Learn to live with uncertainty by not getting However, a learner who represents the other side flustered and by continuing to talk or listen of the coin—intolerant of ambiguity, analytical, without understanding every word. linear thinking—can obviously benefit from an 6. Use mnemonics and other memory strategies awareness of those proclivities and from taking to recall what has been learned. appropriate strategic action. 7. Make errors work for them and not against them. STRATEGIES 8. Use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge Reporter: Justine G. Tabalina of their first language, in learning a second language. If styles are general characteristics that 9. Use contextual cues to help them in differentiate one individual from another, then comprehension. strategies are those specific "attacks" that we 10. Learn to make intelligent guesses. make on a given problem, and that vary 11. Learn chunks of language as wholes and considerably within each individual. formalized routines to help them perform "beyond their competence." Chamot defines strategies quite broadly as 12. Learn certain tricks that help keep conversations going. "Procedures that facilitate a learning task... 13. Learn certain production strategies to fill in strategies are most often conscious and gaps in their own competence. goal-driven." 14. Learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their language according to the The study of second language acquisition has formality of the situation. distinguished between two types of strategies: LEARNING STRATEGIES Learning strategies relate to input—to Reporter: Nikka Jane Paparon processing, storage, and retrieval, that is, to taking in messages from others. The research of the mid-1970s led to some very Communication strategies pertain to output, careful defining of specific learning strategies. In how we productively express meaning, and how some of the most comprehensive research of this we deliver messages to others. kind, Michael O'Malley and Anna Chamot and colleagues studied the use of strategies by Observations of language learners led Rubin and learners of English as a second language in the Stern to describe "good" language learners in United States. terms of personal characteristics, styles, and strategies. Later summarized into fourteen such Typically, strategies were divided into three main characteristics. categories: Metacognitive is a term used in Characteristics of Good Language Learners: information-processing theory to indicate Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies an "executive" function, strategies that involve planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one's production or comprehension, and evaluating learning Cognitive Strategies after an activity is completed (Purpura. Repetition - Imitating a language model, 199~). including overt practice and silent Cognitive strategies are more limited to rehearsal. specific learning tasks and involve more Resourcing - Using target language direct manipulation of the learning reference materials. material itself. Translation - Using the first language as Socioaffective strategies have to do a base for understanding and/or with social-mediating activity and producing the second language. interacting with others. Grouping - Reordering or reclassifying, and perhaps labeling, the material to be Meta cognitive Strategies learned based on common attributes Advance organizers - Making a general Note taking - Writing down the main but comprehensive preview of the organ- idea, important points, outline, or izing concept or principle in an anticipated summary of information presented orally learning activity. or in writing Directed attention - Deciding in Deduction - Consciously applying rules to advance to attend in general to a learning produce or understand the second task and to ignore irrelevant detractors. language. Selective attention - Deciding in Recombination - Constructing a advance to attend to specific aspects of meaningful sentence or larger language language input or situational details that sequence by combining known elements will cue the retention of language input. in a new way. Self-management - Understanding the Imagery - Relating new information to conditions that help one learn and visual concepts in memory via familiar, arranging for the presence of those easily retrievable visualizations, phrases, it conditions. h jiions Functional planning - Planning for and Auditory representation - Retention or rehearsing linguistic components the sound or a similar sound (oi a word, necessary to carry out an upcoming phrase, or longer language sequence). language task. Keyword - Remembering a new word in Self-monitoring - Correcting one's the second language by speech for accuracy in pronunciation, (1) identifying a familiar word in the first grammar, vocabulary, or for language that sounds like or otherwise appropriateness related to the setting or resembles the new word and to the people who are present. 12 j generating easily recalled images of Delayed production - Consciously some relationship between the new word deciding to postpone speaking in order to and the familiar word. learn initially through listening Contextualization Elaboration comprehension. Transfer - Placing a word or phrase in a Self-evaluation - Checking the meaningful language sequence. Relating outcomes of one's own language learning new information to other concepts in against an internal measure of memory. Using previously acquired completeness and accuracy. Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies linguistic and/or conceptual knowledge to Teachable Strategies: Selective attention, facilitate a new language learning task. prediction, note-taking (Vandergrift, 2003; Carrier, Inferencing - Using available information 2001; Ozeki, 2000; Rost & Ross, 1991). to guess meanings of new items, predict outcomes, or fill in missing information. Reading Strategies Approaches: Bottom-up and top-down SOCIO AFFECTIVE STRATEGIES processing, predicting, context guessing, Reporter: Verna Crissa Villorente brainstorming, summarizing (Pressley, 2000; Cooperation - working with one or more Chamot & H-Dinary, 1999; Anderson, 1991). peers to obtain feedback, pool informal ion, or model a language activity Gender has been shown to be a significant Question for clarification - asking a variable in strategy use, both in the case of teacher or other native speaker for learning and in communication strategies. Here repetition, paraphrasing, explanation, are some findings: and/or examples. Listening: Different strategies for men and women (Bacon, 1992). In more recent years, strategy research Speaking and Writing: Males tend to has been evolving a theory of language learning engage in more risk-taking, while females strategies that seeks to confirm or refute a are better at organizational strategies in number of questions that have arisen. (Dornyei & writing (Manbach & Morgan, 2011). Skehan, 2003; Griffiths & Parr, 2001; Hsiao & Cultural Context: Cultural factors influence Oxford, 2002). Such research involves: strategy use, as seen in Kuwait, where 1. the adequacy of categorizing strategies males and females use different strategies into the above three divisions; (El-Dib, 2004). 2. the psychological assumptions underlying Metacognition: In Thailand, male the postulation of strategic options; university students have higher use of 3. the relationship of strategy research to metacognitive strategies than women current language teaching paradigms; (Phakiti, 2003). 4. intercorrelations among, and relationships between, the many strategies that have In the last decade or so of language been identified; and teaching, we have seen mounting evidence of the 5. the adequacy of various measures of usefulness of learners' incorporating strategies strategy use and awareness. into their acquisition process. Two major forms of strategy use have Many studies have also been carried out been documented: classroom-based or on the effectiveness of learners' using a variety of textbook-embedded training, now called strategies in their quest for language strategies-based instruction (SBI), and competence. autonomous self-help training (see later in this These studies often classify language chapter for more on these two forms). learning strategies by the four core skills Research indicates that cultural variables (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) can either facilitate or hinder the use of learning and receptive skills or strategies that focus on strategies (McDonough, 1999; Oxford & listening and reading. Andersen, 1995). Studies in different countries (China, Korea, Japan, Egypt, Kuwait, Italy, Listening Strategies Singapore) show promising results for SBI and Effective Techniques: Monitoring, elaboration, autonomous learning as effective methods for inferencing. language acquisition. Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES Avoidance is a common communication strategy Reporter: Allen Joy Peniero that can be broken down into several subcategories. Communication strategies pertain to the employment of verbal or nonverbal mechanisms The most common type of avoidance strategy is for the productive communication of Information. syntactic or lexical avoidance within a In the arena of linguistic interaction, it is semantic category. sometimes difficult, of course, to distinguish between the two, as Tarone (1983) noted, since Consider the following conversation between a comprehension and production can occur almost learner and a native speaker: simultaneously. Nevertheless, as long as one can L: I lost my road. appreciate the slip periness of such a dichotomy, it remains a useful distinction in understanding NS: You lost your road? the nature of strategies, especially for pedagogical purposes. L: Uh,... I lost. I lost. I got lost. The speculative early research of the 1970s The learner avoided the lexical item road entirely, (Varadi, 1973. and others) has now led to a great not being able to come up with the word way at deal of recent attention to communication that point. A French learner who wishes to avoid strategies (Chamot, 2005; Anderson, 2005; the use of the subjunctive in the sentence H faut McDonough, 1999; Domyei, 1995; Rost & Ross, que nouspartions may, for example, use instead 1991; Bialystok, 1990a; Bongaerts & Poulisse, the sentence II nous fitut partir. Or, not being 1989: Oxford & Crookall, 1989). Some time ago, sure of the use of en in the sentence fen ai trots, Faerch and Kasper (1983a, p. 36) defined the learner might simply say fat trois pommes. communication strategies as "potentially Phonological avoidance is also common, as in conscious plans for solving what to an individual the case of a Japanese tennis partner of mine presents itself as a problem in reaching a who avoided using the word rally (because of its particular communicative goal." While the phonological difficulty) and instead opted to say, research of the last decade does indeed focus simply, "hit the ball." largely on the compensatory nature of communication strategies, more recent A more direct type of avoidance is topic approaches seem to take a more positive view of avoidance, in which a whole topic of communication strategies as elements of an conversation (say, talking about what happened overall strategic competence (see Chapter 9) in yesterday if the past tense is unfamiliar) might be which learners bring to bear all the possible avoided entirely, learners manage to devise facets of their growing competence in order to ingenious methods of topic avoidance: changing send clear messages in the second language. the subject, pretending not to understand (a Moreover, such strategies may or may not be classical means for avoiding answering a "potentially conscious"; support for such a question), simply not responding at all, or conclusion comes from observations of first noticeably abandoning a message when a language acquisition strategies that are similar to thought becomes too difficult to express. those used by adults in second language learning contexts (Bongaerts & Poulisse, 1989). COMPENSATORY STRATEGIES Reporter: Rose Gilongos AVOIDANCE STRATEGIES Reporter: Allen Joy Peniero 3. Circumlocution: Describing or exemplifying the target object or action (e.g., "the thing you open bottles with" for "corkscrew"). Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies 4. Approximation: patterns can sometimes lead to Using an alternative term that misunderstandings or amusement. closely expresses the meaning of the Code-Switching: Common among early target lexical item (e.g., "ship" for learners who use their native language to "sailboat"). fill in gaps in their L2 knowledge. Even 5. Use of All-Purpose Words: when the listener doesn't know the native Extending a general, empty lexical language, nonverbal cues and context can item to contexts where specific words are often aid communication. lacking (e.g., overuse of "thing," "stuff," Appeal to Authority: Learners may ask "what-do-you-call-it," "thingie"). proficient speakers or use a bilingual 6. Word Coinage: dictionary to find the correct word or Creating a non-existing L2 word phrase. This can sometimes lead to based on a supposed rule (e.g., "vegetan" amusing errors when learners misuse for "vegetarian"). dictionary translations. 7. Prefabricated Patterns: Using memorized stock phrases, Additional Useful Strategies Identified by usually for "survival" purposes (e.g., Research "Where is the __________?" or "Comment allez-vous?" where the morphological Word Association: Successful learners components are not known to the learner). use word association and generate their 8. Nonlinguistic Signals: own rules (Cohen and Aphek, 1981). Using mime, gesture, facial Self-Talk: Learners practice their second expression, or sound imitation. language by talking to themselves 9. Literal Translation: (Chesterfield and Chesterfield, 1985). Translating literally a lexical item, Seeking Clarification: Learners benefit idiom, compound word, or structure from asking for repetition and various literally from L1 to L2. forms of clarification (Rost and Ross, 10. Foreignizing: 1991). Using an L1 word by adjusting it to Functional Practice and Reading: L2 phonology (i.e., with an L2 Chinese learners of English showed pronunciation) and/or morphology (e.g., success in oral production through adding an L2 suffix). functional practice (using language for 11. Code-Switching: communication) and reading practice Using an L1 word with L1 (Huang and Van Naerssen, 1987). pronunciation or an L3 word with L3 pronunciation while speaking in L2. STRATEGIES-BASED INSTRUCTION 12. Appeal for Help: Reporter: Jelyn Patriarca Asking for aid from the interlocutor either directly (e.g., "What do you call...?") According to McDonough (1999) and Cohen or indirectly (e.g., rising intonation, pause, (1998), Strategies-Based Instruction (SBI), eye contact, puzzled expression). also known as learner strategy training, is a method used by researchers and teachers to Additional Notes on Compensatory Strategies apply learning and communication strategies to classroom learning. Cohen (1998) likes to refer to Prefabricated Patterns: Often used by "SSBI"—styles and strategies-based instruction beginners who memorize certain phrases —to emphasize the productive link between styles without understanding their components (e.g., "How much does this cost?", "Where and strategies in creating an effective learning is the toilet?"). Mistakes in using these environment in language classrooms, emphasizing the need to teach learners how to learn. Wendcn (1985) emphasized that learner strategies are Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.  Unit III. Process, Style, and Strategies crucial for autonomy and emphasized the importance of language teaching in facilitating this autonomy. Chamot (2005, p. 123) emphasized that explicit instruction is more effective and fosters metacognition, enabling students to understand their own thinking and learning processes. Teachers can enhance their classroom environment by understanding what makes learners successful and unsuccessful, and implementing successful strategies. Direct Strategies According to Bialystok (1985), teachers often face challenges in achieving instant success due to students' preconceived notions of what “ought" to go on in the classroom. However, it has been found that students will benefit from SBI if they (1) understand the strategy itself, (2) perceive it to be effective, and (3) do not consider its implementation to be overly difficult (MacIntyre & Noels, 1996) Therefore our efforts to teach students some technical know-how about how to tackle a language are well advised. The effective implementation of SBI in language classrooms involves several steps and considerations: (1) identifying learners' styles and potential strategies; (2) incorporating SBI in communicative language courses and classrooms; (3) providing extra-class assistance for learners. Indirect Strategies: Metacognitive, Affective, and Social Strategies Reporter: Lei Lindsay Perales Reference: Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education ESL.