BTEC Level 3 National In Uniformed Protective Services PDF

Unit 2 Additional Guidance BTEC Level 3 National in Uniformed Protective Services Unit 2: Behaviour and Discipline in the Uniformed Protective Services (40888M) Table of Contents Key Studies Guidance................................................................................

Unit 2 Additional Guidance BTEC Level 3 National in Uniformed Protective Services Unit 2: Behaviour and Discipline in the Uniformed Protective Services (40888M) Table of Contents Key Studies Guidance................................................................................ 4 Behaviour Theories.................................................................................... 5 Obedience Theories................................................................................. 19 Conformist Theories................................................................................ 22 Theories Related to Stress...................................................................... 25 Other Sources........................................................................................... 31 2 BTEC Level 3 National in Uniformed Protective Services Unit 2: Behaviour and Discipline in the Uniformed Protective Services 3 Key Studies Guidance This guide contains summaries of the Unit 2 Key Studies as background information for teachers. Learners will not be expected to have this level of detail of the named studies, please refer to the specification. 4  Behaviour Theories 1) Behaviourist The behaviourist theory is based on the principle that children come into the world as blank slates. All learning is influenced by the environment around them, in the same way that it would be for animals. Using this assumption, behaviourists believe that human and animal behaviour can be explained through the use of conditioning. Thoughts and feelings are not considered to influence behaviour and neither do inherited factors, and psychological disorders can be treated through changing patterns of behaviour. In other words, behaviour is based on our response to the stimulus individuals are subjected to and is not as a result of inherited factors. Key Vocabulary: Classical The use of a familiar stimulus to influence behaviour towards a Conditioning new stimulus by repeatedly pairing them together. Operant The use of reinforcement, both positive and negative, to Conditioning influence how new behaviours are learnt and how old behaviours are modified. Positive A reward or praise. Reinforcement Negative The removal of an unfavourable outcome. Reinforcement Stimulus A thing or event that causes an individual to react. 5 Key Information: Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning (1890’s) Pavlov conducted studies into the digestive systems in dogs. During his studies, he noticed that the dogs would salivate when they were presented with food - and if they saw the white lab coat of the assistants who brought the food. This observation led Pavlov to discover that the dogs had associated the presentation of food with the lab coat, conditioning them to behave in the same way. Using this discovery, Pavlov conditioned the dogs to salivate in response to the sound of a bell by ringing the bell when they were given food. By pairing the bell (the new stimulus) and the food (the familiar stimulus) together, Pavlov had conditioned the dogs to salivate when they heard the bell, even when there was no food. Burrhus Frederick Skinner - Operant Conditioning (1948) Skinner believed that all human behaviour was the direct result of conditioning. He believed that free will did not exist. Skinner developed an operating conditioning apparatus, which is now known as the Skinner Box, and used this to test behaviour in rats. This was used to understand how long it would take the rat to learn a new behaviour. By pushing a lever (accidentally at first) in the box and receiving a reward, the rat would learn to perform that behaviour. When the rats were given a reward after pressing the bar, they were more likely to press the bar again. Rats that were not given rewards were less likely to press the bar. 6 Unlike Pavlov, Skinner found that behaviour was influenced by what happened after the behaviour and not before it. Skinner also found that behaviour could be influenced by positive or negative rewards, and punishment played a role in influencing behaviour. Albert Bandura - Social Learning Theory (1961) Albert Bandura’s theory was based on the idea that individuals learn from observing others, imitating and modelling. In his experiment, Bandura showed a group of children a film of an adult hitting and shouting at a Bobo doll. When the children were later taken to a playroom containing a Bobo doll, those who had seen the film were more likely to treat the doll badly, imitating the words and language used by the adult in the film. This study was different to those conducted by previous behaviourists. The children were offered no reward to treat the Bobo doll badly. The only stimulus the children had been given was the social influence from the film. The theory believes that individuals learn through two processes: modelling and reinforcement. Individuals are likely to model themselves on people they can relate to, like individuals in the same role or of the same gender, and that as they observe their behaviour, they attempt to copy it. Reinforcement is important because if an individual’s behaviour is reinforced or rewarded in some way it is likely that the behaviour will be repeated. In the Uniformed Protective Services, the police, for example, may be considered role models. When undertaking a role as a police officer, individuals are trained to consider their role in shaping the attitudes and opinions of the public and the perception of individuals towards the service. 7 2) Psychodynamic The psychodynamic approach is based on the principle that behaviour is explained by unconscious thoughts and emotions. Human behaviour is decided by wishes and feelings that individuals are mostly not aware of, that are developed during childhood. This theory is most closely associated with the work of Sigmund Freud (1890-1930), who introduced the topographic model of the mind, often compared to an iceberg. Key Vocabulary: Conscious Mind The experiences of the senses in the here and now. Subconscious Mind The easily accessible part of the mind that stores experiences, memories and skills. Unconscious Mind The bank of memories, thoughts and urges that individuals are not readily aware of. Id Primitive and instinctual part of the mind. Ego Realistic part of the mind operating in the real world. Superego The moral thermometer within the mind. 8 Key Information: Sigmund Freud - The Iceberg Analogy Freud contended that the mind could be split into three parts that developed over the first five years of life: the conscious, preconscious and unconscious. The conscious part holds the current thoughts and feelings that are being experienced in the current time. Individuals take in what they can currently see, hear and feel and make decisions based on that information. The preconscious holds other information that can be easily sourced if needed. These are memories that can be called upon if needed to help make decisions. For example, the memory of a specific date for a birthday or anniversary. The unconscious is made up of memories, thoughts and desires that cannot be called upon easily. Though individuals will not be aware of these, they do influence behaviour. Freud used an iceberg to describe this theory. He described the preconscious as being just under the surface and the unconscious as being deep under the water and much harder to access. Sigmund Freud - The Three Parts to the Psyche Freud developed a theory that all human minds are made up of three parts; the id, the ego and the superego. They act in conflict with each other and it is this conflict that determines our behaviour. The id is based on the pleasure principle and is developed in infancy. It makes decisions based on primary desires and wants in a selfish manner. 9 The ego is developed in toddlers and is the decision-making element of the mind, based on the reality principle. It makes decisions based on consequences and actions found in the real world. The ego works to grant the desires of the id in the real world. The ego has no conscience - no sense of right or wrong. This role is fulfilled by the superego, which develops between the ages of 4 and 6. It acts as the voice of conscience between the ego and the id. When the ego generates thoughts that the superego disagrees with, it generates guilt and shame. When the ego struggles to manage conflict with the id, it can develop defence mechanisms in order to protect itself. Examples of these include: Repression - the desires of the id are pushed back into the unconscious mind. Denial - the id’s desires are acted on but the conscious mind refuses to recognise them. Projection - the id’ feelings are denied, and the super ego’s hostility is directed at other people doing what the id desires. For example, when a student is revising for a test, they will need to balance the conflicting drives of all three parts. The id is concerned with pleasure and immediate gratification will not consider the revision important. It will be more interested in spending time doing something fun like going on social media. The Superego will want to revise. It is focused on doing the right thing. The Superego will reward the student with pride if they revise so they can do well in the test or punish the student with shame if they do not revise. The Ego is based on the reality principle; what makes sense in the situation. It will consider what is in the individual’s best interest, making a decision between the Id and Superego. When the student does the homework, the Superego is dominant. When the student chooses not to do the work, the Id is dominant. 10 3) Humanistic: The humanistic approach is based on the idea that individuals operate on their own free will and are able to choose how they act. Individuals act out of a need to lead lives that they will find fulfilling by reaching their full potential. This approach focuses on the principle that for an individual to be able to reach their full potential, they must interpret their own experiences so that they can understand their meaning and grow from them. For example, motivation and employee engagement have a large influence on the role of a person working in the Uniformed Protective Services. Where an employee is praised by their employer, they will react with a willingness to serve and an underlying desire to make the world a better place through their actions. Key Vocabulary: Self- When an individual can appreciate that they have reached their actualisation full potential. Free-will The ability to choose between different courses of action. Physiological Needs that must be met for survival, including food and water. Key Information: Abraham Maslow - The Hierarchy of Needs A Theory of Human Motivation, 1943) Maslow developed a five-tier process that all individuals will follow in order to achieve self-actualisation. Maslow believed that everyone has an in-built desire to be the best they can be. In order to reach these goals individuals must first meet their basic needs. He displayed these needs as a pyramid. 11  The most basic needs are contained at the bottom of the pyramid. These needs include food, water, sleep and warmth. Once these needs are met, individuals can progress up the pyramid to meet the needs of safety and love. As the individual progresses up the pyramid, different needs will take priority. When an individual reaches the top of the pyramid, they will have achieved self-actualisation. An example of this theory is seen in the sample assessment material for Unit 2 where Samantha is in a role as a firefighter. Her safety needs are met through the provision of high quality personal protective equipment, her social needs are met through her interactions with colleagues and members of the public and the self-esteem needs are met through mastering new skills as a fire fighter. Samantha is therefore able to reach self-actualisation in her role as a firefighter because her other needs have been met. 4) Cognitive Psychology (Piaget, Tolman et al 1950’s-1960’s) Cognitive psychologists view the human mind like a computer. This theory attempts to explain behaviour by reviewing the thought processes used by the brain in reaching decisions. These include thinking, memory, attention, language, problem solving and learning. It has been used in real-world terms to develop an understanding of problem solving and learning as well as to treat brain injury and learning disorders. An example of this is when an individual suffers from a Traumatic Brain Injury. This can have an impact on their behaviour, and consequently could become more aggressive. The emotional experience of a psychological trauma can also have an impact in the long term on cognitive processes. For example, the ability to remember, pay attention and problem solve. When an individual is exposed to a terrifying and life-threatening event, possibly through their role in the Uniformed Public Services, they can suffer from PTSD where they relive the traumatic event and can become hypervigilant to potential threats. Cognitive psychologists recognise the link between these emotions and cognition. 12 The cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes, and in particular the link between stimulus and response should be studied scientifically. It has been influenced by developments in computer science and as a result if often compared with the basic analogy of a computer processor. Cognitive psychology considers how the brain inputs, stores and retrieves information. Experimental cognitive psychology is when Cognitive Psychologists use information as a stimulus so that they can identify how it appears in the brain. Using the theory that when an area of the brain is in use. Blood flow to that region also increases cognitive psychologists use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. It has helped psychologists to understand how individuals form memories, language, pain and emotions. Other Theories of Behaviour Type A and Type B Personality Theory This approach groups all personality traits as either Type A or Type B. People with a Type A personality tend to lack patience, have a strong urge for competition, a high desire to achieve goals, always rush to complete activities, will happily multi-task when placed under time constraints, lack tolerance towards others and experience higher levels of anxiety. Type B personalities tend to be more tolerant towards others, more relaxed and reflective than their Type A counterparts, experience lower levels of anxiety and display higher levels of imagination and creativity. Because of their personality types, Type B individuals are less likely to suffer from high levels of stress. Type A individuals are more likely to suffer from stress because they are competitive and have an urgent nature. 13 Trait Theory Trait theories suggest that individuals have certain characteristics that explain their patterns of behaviour. Traits are stable aspects of personality that are mostly inherited and can be used to predict behaviour based on the individuals’ traits. Examples include: sociable or shy passive or aggressive optimistic or pessimistic Key Vocabulary: Trait An identifying characteristic. Extrovert Outgoing and socially confident. Introvert Shy and quiet. The theory contends that it is these traits that heavily influence how an individual will behave, regardless of the situation. An example is the extroverts - introvert trait. All individuals will fall somewhere along the continuum not everyone will be an introvert or extrovert. Some will sit in between these two. It is their location that will determine how they will behave in a variety of situations. 14 Situational Theory The situational approach is different from the trait theory approach as it says that behaviour is dependent on the current situation or environment. It argues that this is far more important than traits. Behaviour will change in different scenarios, so this approach focuses on how the environmental factors influence behaviour. An example of this, discussed later, is the Stanford Prison experiment (Philip Zimbardo, 1971). In this experiment, individuals randomly selected as guards exhibited aggressive behaviour traits towards other individuals randomly selected as prisoners. Zimbardo argued that this experiment provided evidence that it was the situation the individuals were in that mostly influenced their behaviour. This theory also relates to Bandura’s social learning theory, outlined on page 3. It supports the argument that an individual’s traits will influence their behaviour in a new situation however as Bandura found, this can also be influenced by the situation. Theory of Planned Behaviour This theory links the beliefs an individual hold, to the likelihood that they will behave in a certain way. Three key elements can be used to shape the intentions of an individual; attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. Key Vocabulary: Behavioural The perceived likelihood of a person carrying out this behaviour. intention Attitude A person’s individual feelings and evaluation of the behaviour. Subjective norm How others in society view this behaviour. Perceived The individual belief that one has control over a specific action behavioural or behaviour. control 15 Key Information: This theory is based on three principles: 1) Attitude towards the behaviour - this is the individual's belief that the behaviour will make a positive or negative contribution towards their life. 2) Subjective norm - these are the opinions of individuals surrounding the individual. They include peer opinion, social norms, cultural beliefs. 3) Perceived behavioural control - this is the individual’s own belief on how easy or hard it is to display a certain behaviour or act in a certain way. Attitude is a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviours toward an object, person, thing, or event. They are often the result of experience or upbringing, and they can have a powerful influence over behaviour. While attitudes are enduring, they can also change. A person’s attitude will be developed by: 1) Previous experiences - Attitudes form directly as a result of experience. They may emerge due to direct personal experience, or they may result from observation of the experiences of others. 2) Modelling the behaviour of others - people also learn attitudes by observing people around them. When someone an individual admires greatly displays a particular attitude, the individual is more likely to develop the same beliefs. 3) Cultural influences - Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to how people are expected to behave in a particular role or context, for example drill practice during training in the Army. Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine a man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain, and ask him to leave their area. This negative feedback from those around him eventually causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up the habit. How does this work in reality? A positive attitude towards the social behaviour, favourable social norms and a high level of perceived behavioural control are required to form a positive behavioural intention and therefore this is when the required behaviour is most likely to occur. For example, in the additional sample assessment material, candidates are asked to 16 evaluate how likely Clara is to succeed with her intentions to commit to a new fitness programme. Clara is more likely to stick to her exercise plan if she perceives the activity to be enjoyable, be enjoyable, is supported by her peers and believes that she has the skill set to overcome obstacles If one of the constructs is unfavourable, the required behaviour is much less likely to happen. The likelihood decreases further if two of the constructs are unfavourable. In Clara’s case, she does not enjoy exercise. This makes her success less likely. The fact that she also lacks confidence in her own ability to stick to it will also influence the outcome, however the fact that the classes are local will increase the chances of success. Carol Dweck- Spectrum of Mindset Theory (2006) The mindset theory is based on the idea of the existence of two different types of mindset; the fixed mindset and the growth mindset. Key Vocabulary: Fixed Individuals who believe their qualities are fixed and cannot change. mindset Growth Individuals who thrive on a challenge and are always eager to learn mindset more. Key Information: If an individual has a fixed mindset, they believe that they have a number of basic qualities, including intelligence and talent, that are fixed. They cannot improve or worsen. They hold the belief that their ability to achieve comes from a talent that they are born with, and not from developing skills through learning. Individuals who display a fixed mindset are more likely to resist change and reject new ideas. They will place limitations on themselves and will give up easily. 17 An individual with a growth mindset believes that they can be achieved through dedication and hard work. They believe ability and success comes through hard work and learning and therefore requires time and effort. When facing a challenge, an individual with a growth mindset is more likely to try harder, try a different approach or seek help. Those with a growth mindset do not give up when a task becomes challenging, and will remain open to suggestions, feedback and ideas so that they can embrace change. For example, a student who believed that they incapable of doing mathematics sums. The likelihood of the student’s willingness to attempt mathematics and improve, according to Dweck, will be dependent on their mindset. A student with a closed mindset will not attempt to advance their mathematical skills. A student with a growth mindset will embark on mathematics and enjoy the challenges it comes with in order to develop their mathematical skills. In the sample assessment materials. Candidates are asked to identify the mindset of both Samantha and Mo. Samantha is keen to progress and develop her career by challenging herself to develop new skills and improve thus displaying a growth mindset. Mo on the other hand has decided that he is not suited for frontline duties and is not prepared to challenge himself any further, thus displaying a fixed mindset. 18  Obedience Theories Obedience is a type of social influence that requires individuals to perform a task under the instructions of an authority figure. Key Vocabulary: Obedience Following an order or request. Conformity When an individual change their behaviour to fit in with a group. Compliance When an individual change their behaviour because they are requested to do so. Authority Figure A person whose command over others inspires or demands obedience. Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Research (1963) Milgram carried out his investigation having watched the trial of Adolf Eichmann who had been in charge of the mass exportation of the Jewish population from Germany during World War 2. He had claimed at his trial that he did not feel guilty as he was following orders. After the trial, Milgram set out to investigate just how influential the pressure to obey from an authority figure could be. Milgram’s experiment involved participants who responded to a newspaper advert. Milgram used a shock generator that started at 30 volts and increased in 15-volt increments to 450 volts. The increments were labelled with signs like slight shock, moderate shock and danger: severe shock. The final two labels were XXX. The participants were all given the role of teacher and were tasked with delivering a shock to the student whenever they gave an incorrect answer. Although the teacher believed they were giving real shocks, the student was pretending. 19 During the experiment, the student would beg to be released and complain about medical conditions. At 300 volts, they would bang on the wall. After this point, they would be completely silent. Most teachers would ask the experimenter if they should continue. The experimenter would give the following responses: "Please continue." "The experiment requires that you continue." "It is absolutely essential that you continue." "You have no other choice; you must go on." Milgram used the experiment to measure how obedient the teachers were. He wanted to see what level of shock they were willing to deliver. 26 of the 40 participants delivered the maximum shock. Even though many of the participants became angry or agitated with the experimenter, they continued to follow the orders. Milgram conducted many more variations of the experiment. He found that: Obedience rates decreased when the learner was in the same room as the experimenter Obedience rates declined even further when the teacher had to physically touch the learner to administer the punishment Participants were less willing to continue the procedure after seeing other teachers refuse to press the shock levers Participants were significantly less obedient when the instructions to continue came from a person they believed to be another participant rather than from the experimenter. The closer the teacher was to the learner, the lower the level of obedience. The proximity of the authority figure can also affect the obedience of the teacher. In one variation, after the experimenter had given the initial instructions, they left the room. All further instructions were provided over the phone. In this variation participants were more likely to defy the experimenter and only 21% of the participants administered the full 450 volts. In the additional sample materials for Unit 2, candidates are asked to assess Varma’s behaviour in obeying his line manager. They will draw upon the links between the case study and Milgram’s experiment. Varma appreciated that his actions were wrong but 20 the need he felt to obey his line manager as he held a position of authority; even more so when his line manager was in the room rather than on the phone. Jerry Burger (2009) replicating Milgram Burger believed that Milgram’s results were important in helping society to understand the behaviour of those involved in atrocities like the Holocaust and Abu Ghraib. He wished to repeat the experiment to test it against modern moral standards to see if they would receive different results from participants living in a society far more aware of their moral responsibilities. In conducting the experiment, he changed the maximum voltage to 150, so this was not a like for like comparison. The results of the new experiment revealed that participants obeyed at the same rate that they did when Milgram conducted his original study. Charles K Hofling’s Hospital Experiment of Obedience (1966) Hofling’s aim was to create a more realistic study of obedience than Milgram's by carrying out field studies on nurses who were unaware that they were involved in an experiment. Nurses in a hospital were given orders from a 'doctor' over the telephone to administer a dose of medication above the maximum allowed. The nurses were watched to see what they would do. The medication was not real, though the nurses thought it was. 21 out of 22 nurses were easily influenced into carrying out the orders. They were not supposed to take instructions by phone, let alone exceed the allowed dose. When other nurses were asked to discuss what they would do in a similar situation, 21 out of 22 said they would not comply with the order. Hofling had demonstrated that people are very unwilling to question supposed 'authority', even when they might have good reason to. 21  Conformity Theories Stanford Prison experiment (Philip Zimbardo, 1971) Zimbardo set up a mock prison within the Stanford university complex and planned a two-week study. 23 volunteers were selected and divided randomly into two groups. One group was the guards, the other group was the prisoners. The prisoners were collected from their homes by police officers and brought to the prison. They were checked in using a usual check in process, and the setting resembled a standard prison. The guards had been instructed to maintain the prison environment without using force. The guards immediately began to behave in an authoritarian manner. On the second day, the prisoners formed a rebellion against the guards. The guards retaliated with psychological and physical punishment. This included the restriction of food, water and sleep. They forced them to clean toilets with their bare hands and stripped them naked. On the fifth night, the guards put bags over the prisoners’ heads, chained their legs, and marched them around. At this point, a former student who was not involved with the study spoke up, declaring the treatment of the prisoners to be immoral. As a result, the researchers stopped the experiment early. The findings of Zimbardo’s research were clear: people may be so profoundly influenced by their social situation that they become cold-hearted jail masters who torture their victims. Zimbardo argued that “human behaviour is more influenced by things outside of us than inside.” He believes that, despite our moral and religious beliefs and despite the inherent goodness of people, there are times when external circumstances can overwhelm us, and we will do things we never thought we were capable of doing. He argued that “if you’re not aware that this can happen, you can be seduced by evil. We need inoculations against our own potential for evil. We have to acknowledge it. Then we can change it”(An Interview with Philip Zimbardo, 2009). 22 The Asch Paradigm (Solomon Asch 1950’s) Asch conducted several experiments to test conformity in order to discover the amount that a person’s opinions could be influenced by the opinions of a group. As part of these experiments, Asch placed participants into a group where they believed that everyone else were also participants. The other group members were there to behave in a certain way to see if their actions influenced the unknowing participant. All participants were told that they were taking part in a vision test. The participants were given a line task where they were asked to confirm which of the comparison lines matched the reference line. The participant did not know that the other group members had all been told which line to state (this was not the correct answer). Each participant in turn announced which line they believed was the correct match. There were 18 tests, and in 12 of them the other members of the group gave incorrect responses. During the first part of the procedure, the other group members answered the questions correctly. However, they eventually began providing incorrect answers based on how they had been instructed by the experimenters. Nearly 75% of the participants in the conformity experiments went along with the rest of the group at least one time. The experiments also looked at the effect that the number of people in the group had on conformity. When just one other group member was present, there was hardly any impact on participants' answers. The presence of two group members had only a tiny effect. The level of conformity seen with three or more group members was far higher. Asch also found that having one of the group members give the correct answer while the rest of the group members gave the incorrect answer dramatically lowered conformity. In this situation, just 5 to 10% of the participants conformed to the rest of the group (depending on how often the ally answered correctly). Later studies have also supported this finding, suggesting that having social support is an important tool in stopping conformity. 23 Asch’s Findings The more people present, the more likely conformity will be, however this only happens up to a group size of four or five. When the task is more challenging, individuals are more likely to conform. Where other group members are more knowledgeable or powerful, conformity is more likely. When responses are given privately, conformity decreases. Conformity is an essential element of the role for all Uniformed Protective Service employees. Without obedience and conformity, the hierarchical system would not be effective. All workers as part of their roles are expected to follow orders even when they disagree with them or believe that they have a better idea. By doing this, they are conforming to the behaviour expected by their commanding officers and by their fellow workers. This also helps them to feel a sense of belonging to a group. An example of this is shown by wearing the same uniform as everyone else which acts as an instantly recognisable symbol of unity. Failure to conform can result is disciplinary action, and in some instances can result in a criminal offence. 24  Theories Related to Stress Stress-vulnerability model (Zubin and Spring, 1977) The aim of this model is to address the issue of why some people develop psychiatric disorders when others do not, particularly where disorders seem to appear in family members. As suggested by the title, there are two main factors: biological vulnerability and susceptibility to mental health disorders. These are decided by genetics and early life experiences. The model suggests that an ‘individual has unique biological, psychological and social elements. These elements include strengths and vulnerabilities of dealing with stress. There is a degree of a genetic predisposition and an association of trauma that equates to level of stress. These can also be affected by any medication, alcohol or drug use. Individuals can manage their stress more effectively by using coping skills, their social support network and participation in meaningful activities. Key Vocabulary: Biological More likely to suffer from a particular illness such as asthma Vulnerability or heart disease. Stress Mental or emotional strain. Key Information: Biological Vulnerability Based on family history or early life experiences, individuals can be more likely to suffer from psychiatric disorders such as depression, schizophrenia, or anxiety disorders (panic, post-traumatic stress). Although these vulnerabilities are decided by factors like genetics, individuals can limit their impact through the use of medication and avoiding alcohol or drugs. 25 The main factors of the stress-vulnerability model are: Alcohol and drug use or medication use Coping skills Social support Meaningful activities The symptoms of stress can be improved by addressing these factors. Alcohol and Drug Use Using alcohol or drugs can increase an individual’s vulnerability to stress. Substance use can trigger a psychiatric disorder and lead to more severe symptoms (Santucci K. Psychiatric disease and drug abuse, 2012). Stress Stress can worsen biological vulnerability and worsen symptoms. Stress is anything that challenges an individual, needing them to adapt. Serious stressful events can include losing a loved one, getting fired from a job, being a victim of crime, or having conflicts with close people. Stress is often associated with negative events, but positive events and experiences may be stressful as well. For example, performing well in school, getting a new job, starting a new relationship, having a baby, or being a parent all involve some degree of stress. It is also possible for stress to be caused by not having enough to do. Factors that contribute to stress include harassment, discrimination and bullying. Coping Skills Stress is a normal part of life. Developing coping strategies can help with handling stress and reducing its negative effects on vulnerability. This can be relaxation skills, social skills to deal with conflict, time management skills. Where exposure to stress is prolonged, this can lead to abnormal behaviour such as phobias, panic-anxiety disorder or Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Involvement in Meaningful Activities When an individual has something meaningful to do with their time, it gives them a sense of purpose, and reduces the stress of having nothing to do. Meaningful activities include a job, school, parenting, homemaking and hobbies. 26 Social Support Another way to reduce the negative effects of stress on vulnerability is through social support, which comes from having close and meaningful relationships with other people. This can be used to help individuals solve problems, support developing coping strategies, feel important and cared about. People who have good social support are less vulnerable to the effects of stress. General Adaptation Syndrome (Reaction to Stress, Hans Seyle 1907-1982) General Adaptation Syndrome explains the different stages of stress, which are important in understanding how to manage it by spotting the early warning signs. It identifies the three-stage process that describes the physiological changes the body goes through when under stress. Key Vocabulary: Alarm Reaction Initial reaction of the body in “fight or flight” mode to stress. Stage Resistance Stage Body remains on high alert, producing hormones to react to stress. Exhaustion Stage Body becomes exhausted by continued reaction to stress. Adaptation Changing to better manage a stressful situation. Coping To attempt to overcome a problem. 27 1. Alarm reaction stage This is the initial symptoms the body experiences when under stress. This can include a “fight or flight” response where individuals will either walk away or rise to the challenge of a stressful situation. The heart rate increases, the adrenal gland releases cortisol (a stress hormone), and the individual will receive a boost of adrenaline, which increases energy. 2. Resistance stage After the initial shock of stress, the body begins to repair itself. It releases a lower amount of cortisol, and heart rate and blood pressure begin to return to normal rates. Although the body enters this recovery phase, it remains on high alert. If an individual overcomes stress and the situation is no longer an issue, the body continues to repair itself until hormone levels, heart rate, and blood pressure return to normal levels. If the stress continues and the body remains on high alert, it eventually adapts and learns how to live with a higher stress level. In this stage, the body goes through changes to try to cope with stress. The body continues to release the stress hormone and blood pressure remains high. If the resistance stage continues for too long without a break, this can lead to the exhaustion stage. Signs of the resistance stage include: irritability frustration poor concentration 3. Exhaustion stage This stage is the result of chronic stress. Struggling with stress for long periods can drain physical, emotional, and mental resources to the point where the body can no longer fight stress. The physical effects of this stage also weaken your immune system and put you at risk for stress-related illnesses. Signs include: fatigue or burnout depression anxiety decreased tolerance to stress 28 Stress is caused by factors beyond the control of the individual. These are normally external factors that provoke a negative reaction. Stressful events include: a job loss medical problems financial troubles family breakdown trauma Individual Perception of demand An individual’s reaction can be formed on experience and maturity. For example, sitting an exam for the first time will cause a different level of stress to one where you are sitting a different exam for the 5th time. A police officer conducting an interview will find it more stressful the first time than the tenth time an interview is conducted. More experience in both scenarios makes it easier for the individual to feel that they have the skills to manage the situation. Stress Response Stress produces physical and psychological changes in all individuals. These physical changes relate to feeling nervous and jittery, increased heart rate levels or stomach churning. It can cause individuals to suffer from negative thinking or a lack of concentration. The production of these symptoms can add to further stress and worry. Behavioural Consequences Behaviour is based on an individual’s ability to cope. Behaviour that is irrational and negative will result in irritability, verbal language that is harmful, physical harm and overthinking. There are many times when individuals will lose their temper and regret it after. In the Uniformed Protective Services, individuals will appraise their own behaviour after an incident to help them reflect on it. They will consider how they would handle the situation differently in the future so that they can learn from their own reaction. The Attitude / Behaviour cycle (Betari Box) The Betari Box theory links attitude and behaviour in a circular diagram. It helps individuals to understand how their attitudes and behaviours can impact others around them. 29 A positive attitude can encourage positive behaviour which will influence others to behave and think in the same way. This will, in turn, be reflected back at the person who initially exhibited the positive attitude and behaviour. A negative attitude can lead to negative behaviour, which will influence others negatively. This will then be reflected back negatively at the initial person. In simple terms: My Attitude > Affects > My Behaviour > Affects > Your Attitude > Affects > Your Behaviour > Affects > My Attitude and so on. This creates an ongoing cycle of negative or positive behaviour. The cycle of conflict, or negative attitude and behaviour can be broken by: Taking the time to pause before responding to an attitude or behaviour in a negative manner Choosing to respond to negative behaviour in a positive manner Exploring and resolving reasons for negativity Positive reinforcement through rehabilitation or counselling The attitude-behaviour cycle is referred to in the sample assessment material for Unit 2, where candidates are asked to identify how the stages can be used to defuse the communication between prisoners. Candidates are expected to understand that Rebecca can defuse the situation by maintaining a positive attitude so that it should, in turn, improve the attitude of the prisoners. 30 Other Sources Films and Film Clips The Stanford Prison Experiment (2015) - docudrama of the original experiment. Derren Brown the Heist (2007) - British TV series where the Milgram experiment is used as part of conformity testing in episode 3. The Experimenter (2015) - Based on Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments. Shows simulated and archived footage of the original experiments. The Elevator Experiment - modern conformity testing conducted using an elevator. The Fish! Philosophy - an example of the Betari Box being used to improve positivity in the workplace. Books Revise AQA AS Level Psychology Revision Guide and Workbook, Middleton, Cave & Harty (2016) Pearson Education ISBN: 978-1292139272 The Little Book of Psychology: An Introduction to the Key Psychologists and Theories You Need to Know, Ralls & Riggs (2019) Summersdale ISBN: 978- 1786858078 Websites www.verywellmind.com www.simplypsychology.org 31 32