Unit 1 Final Exam Anatomy I Notes PDF

**Unit 1 notes Anatomy** **Introduction to Anatomy:** **Anatomy:** - Branch of biology that Is the consideration of the structure of living things - Related to embryology - Subdivided: gross (can be seen by naked eye) and microscopic anatomy (needs microscopies) **Physiology:**...

**Unit 1 notes Anatomy** **Introduction to Anatomy:** **Anatomy:** - Branch of biology that Is the consideration of the structure of living things - Related to embryology - Subdivided: gross (can be seen by naked eye) and microscopic anatomy (needs microscopies) **Physiology:** - The science of the function of living systems - Used to determine organisms and organs systems function in living system **Importance of Anatomy and physiology:** - Understand how body responds to stimuli, environmental changes and causes, diseases, and injuries - Maintains stable, internal conditions - Negative and positive feedback **Levels of organization:** - **Chemicals:** smallest level, bonds, molecules - **Cells:** basic unit of life, organelles, and compartments - **Tissues:** group of cells with similar structures and function - **Organs:** two or more tissue types acting together - **Systems:** group of organs continuing to some function - **Organism:** all organ systems working together **Integumentary system:** - Largest organ system - Protects body from the damage - Skin and its appendages - Waterproof, cushion, and protects the deeper tissues - Excrete wastes - Regulate temperature - Have attachment for sensory receptors, detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature - Vitamin d synthesis - Fight against pathogens **Skeletal system:** - Basic framework of the body - Bones, joint, and cartilage - Supports organs **Muscular system:** - Allows it to move - Controlled through the nervous system - Types of muscles: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth - Provide strength, balance, posture, movement, and heat - Stimulated by action potential - Consume ATP comes from the cells **Nervous system:** - Contain a network of specialized cells called neurons - Transmits signals in the body - There is CNS and PNS - CNS is brain and spinal cord, while PNS is sensory neurons **Endocrine system:** - System of glands that secrete hormones into bloodstream - Made up of a series of ductless glands that produce hormones - Regulate functions of an organism, growth, development, tissue function, and metabolism **Cardiovascular system:** - Blood distribution network - Passes nutrients, hormones, gases, and cells. - Stabilize body temperature - Helps maintain blood pH to homeostasis **Lymphatic system:** - Made up of a network of conduits that carry fluid called lymph - Lymphatic vessels flow lymph toward the heart - Found in lymph noses **Respiratory system:** - Airways, lugs, and the respiratory muscles - Exchange process of oxygen and carbon occurs in lungs **Digestive system:** - Mechanical and chemical break down of food - Enzymes digesting food **Urinary system:** - Urinary produces, stores, and eliminates urine - Kidneys, ureters, bladder **Reproductive system:** - Purpose of reproduction - Creating gametes - Allowing of genetic material to create the best genetic fitness of the offspring **Characteristics of life:** - **Organization:** interaction between organisms - **Metabolism:** using energy to preform functions - **Responsiveness:** sense changes in environment - **Growth:** increase in size and number of cells - **Development:** changes in organism - **Differentiation:** changes from general to specific - **Morphogenesis:** change in shape of tissues, organs, and organism - **Reproduction:** formation of cells for growth **Homeostasis:** - Maintenance of a constant environment within the body - Values of variables (conditions) determine set point (ideal normal value) a normal range of values - Regulated by feedback loops that allows for process to be adjusted by the outcome - There is a positive and negative feedback - Components of feedback loops: receptor (monitor the change in value), control center (establishes the set point), and effector (generates the response) **Negative feedback:** - Regulates the most systems of the body - Maintain the homeostasis by decreasing the change by returning to the set point **Positive feedback:** - When the deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater - Unusual in normal healthy individuals - Childbirth, blood clotting - Effectors continue the response beyond the set point until the original stimulus is removed **Metabolism:** - **Catabolism:** reaction that break substances down, used to form ATP - **Anabolism:** reaction that build substances up, requires ATP **Anatomical position:** - Body erects, face forward, feet together, palms face forward - Supine: face upward - Prone: face downward Directional terms: - Superior: toward the head - Inferior: away from the head - Anterior (ventral): the front - Posterior (dorsal): the back - Medial: to the midline - Lateral: away from the midline - Proximal: to the midline in the gridles - Distal: away from the midline in the gridles - Superficial and deep **Planes of division:** - **Frontal** (coronal) plate: divides into anterior and posterior - **Sagittal** plate: divides into to halves, right and left - **Transverse** (horizontal) plate creates lower and upper body, cuts horizontally **Tissue sections:** - **Cross section:** divides into upper and lower - **Longitudinal section:** into front and back - **Oblique section** **Body cavities:** - Cranial cavity - Spinal cavity - Thoracic cavity: pericardial cavity, pleural cavity, and mediastinum - Abdominal cavity - Pelvic cavity **Regions of abdomen:** - Epigastric - Umbilical - Hypogastric - Hypochondriac - Lumbar - Iliac **Quadrants of abdomen:** - Right upper quadrant - Left upper quadrant - Right lower quadrant - Left lower quadrant **Serous membranes:** - Covers the organs of body cavities and line the cavity - **Visceral membrane**: inner layer - **Parietal membrane:** lines the cavity, outer layer - In between filed with serous fluid - Pericardium: surrounds heart - Pleura: surrounds lungs - Peritoneum: surrounds abdominal organs **Elements:** the simplest type of matter, cannot be broken down **Atoms:** smallest particle of an element that has a chemical characteristic - Protons: positive charge - Neutrons: no charge - Electrons: negative charge - differ by number of protons, neutrons, and electrons - isotopes: different form of the same element with the same number of protons **The most abounded elements of the body:** carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen **Chemical bonds:** - the electrical attraction between atoms - cause by electromagnetic force between opposite charges - determined by electronegativity - **ionic:** **- ions:** gained or lost electrons **- cations:** positively charged **- anions:** negatively charged \- bond when electron is transferred between atoms creating opposite charged ions that are attracted to each other \- cause by the transfer of electrons \- Na and CI - **covalent:** - **hydrogen:** **Solubility:** - ability of one substance to dissolve in another **Electrolytes:** - substance containing free ions - ionic solution formed by substances dissolved in water **Chemical reactions:** - atoms interact with each other - **reactants**: enter reaction - **products**: result from reaction - **metabolism**: sum of the anabolic and catabolic reactions - **synthesis (anabolism):** reactants combine to form a larger product, chemical bonds are made, energy stored in bonds, responsible for growth and repair - **Dehydration:** water is a product - **Decomposition (Catabolism):** reactant is broken down to from smaller products, chemical bonds broken, energy released - **Hydrolysis:** water splits into two parts to form a product - **Reversible reactions:** reaction can proceed either from reactants to products or from products to reactants - **Oxidation**: loss of electron - **Reduction:** gain of electron - **catalysts:** speed up the reactions, lower the activation energy - **Enzymes:** proteins that play the role of catalysts, increase the rate if chemical reactions, by lowering the activation energy. - Influencing the speed is temperature and concentration **Energy:** - Capacity to do work - **Potential energy:** energy stored in chemical bonds, that could work if released. - **Kinetic**: does work and moves matter **Chemistry:** - **Inorganic:** do not contain carbon - **Organic:** contain carbon **Water:** - Hydrophilic: attracted to water - Hydrophobic: not attracted to water - Stabilizing body temperature - Protection - Participates in chemical reactions **Acids:** - Electrolyte that dissociates into hydrogen ion and anion - Reacts with base - Have ph less than 7 **Bases:** - Make solution less acidic - Have ph less more than 7 - Contain OH **PH scale:** - Ph\> 7 basic - Ph\< 7 acidic - 7 neutral - Blood Ph\>7.35 acidotic - Blood Ph\ - **Active transport:** requires ATP, movement from lower to higher concentration **Cytoplasm:** - Thick liquid within the cell - Most cellular activities occur - Cytosol part of cytoplasm that is not held within organelles **Cytoskeleton:** - Supports the cells, allows the movement, and creates shape - Microtubules: transport, cell division - Microfilaments: structure, movement **Nucleus:** - Control center of the cell - Maintain the integrity of genes and control the activates of the cell by regulating gene expression - Surrounded by double layer nuclear membrane - Nucleoplasm, nucleolus (synthesis of ribosomes), chromatin (contain genes) - DNA is found in nucleus to form chromosomes **Ribosomes:** - Sites of protein synthesis - Free: synthesize proteins - Attached to ER: produce proteins **RER rough endoplasmic reticulum:** - Has ribosomes on surface - Proteins folding and transport of synthesized proteins **SER smooth endoplasmic reticulum:** - No ribosomes - Site of lipid and steroid synthesis **Golgi apparatus:** - Cellular endomembrane system - Modifying, sorting, packing macromolecules synthesized by cell including lipids and proteins - Creation of lysosomes **Lysosomes:** - Contain enzymes to break waste materials - Digest food particles, viruses, and bacteria **Mitochondria:** - Powerhouse of the cell - Supply of ATP - Has its own genome **Centrioles:** - Located in centrosome - Give cell shape and movement - Create spindle fibers for cell division **Cilia and flagella:** - Move materials over the surface of cell - Used for movement of sperm cell **Gene expression:** - The production of RNA from the information stored in DNA - **Transcription:** - **Translation:** - Introns (not coded) and exons (coded) **Cell division:** - Each cells contains 46 chromosomes is diploid - Sperm and egg contain 23 is haploid - Uses mitosis and meiosis **Cell cycle:** - **Interphase:** phase between cell divisions, replication of DNA and normal cell activities. Cell spends majority of time during this phase. It is a living phase of the cell. - **Mitosis:** leads to production of two identical daughter cells - **Cytokinesis:** division of cell cytoplasm - **Meiosis:** necessary for reproduction, produces haploid cell **Apoptosis:** - Cell's death **Cell differentiation:** - The specialization of cells that occurs during cell development **Histology:** the study of tissues **Types of tissues:** - Epithelial: closely packed cells - Connective: variable, wide spaced cells in a protein rich matrix - Muscle: closely packed cells - Nervous: neurons involved in electric signals **Embryonic tissue:** - Endoderm: inner layer, lines digestive track - Mesoderm: middle layer, forms muscle, blood vessels, and bone - Ectoderm: outer layer, forms skin **Epithelial tissue:** - Mostly composed of cells, little extracellular matrix - Covers body surfaces and glands - Has tissues surfaces - Avascular: no blood vessels - Material must move by diffusion from underlying connective tissue - High regeneration capacity - Attachment to a basement membrane made of collagen and glycoproteins - Protection, filtration, secretion, absorption **Types of epithelial tissue:** - **Simple squamous**: Thin, allows diffusion (e.g., in lungs). - **Stratified squamous**: Protective layer (e.g., skin). - **Simple cuboidal**: Secretion and absorption (e.g., glands). - **Simple columnar**: Absorption and secretion (e.g., intestines). - **Pseudostratified columnar**: Appears layered but isn\'t, moves mucus (e.g., respiratory tract). - **Transitional**: Stretches (e.g., bladder) **Classification of epithelial tissues:** - **Simple**: One layer. - **Stratified**: Multiple layers. - **Pseudostratified**: appears to be stratified but is not - **Transitional: cell shape changes from cuboidal to squamous** - **Squamous**: Flat cells. - **Cuboidal**: Cube-shaped cells. - **Columnar**: Tall, column-like cells. **Free surface modification:** - **Cilia**: Move substances along (e.g., in the respiratory system). - **Microvilli**: Increase surface area for absorption (e.g., in the intestines). - **Tight junctions**: Prevent leaks between cells. - **Desmosomes**: proteins linking two cells together - **Gap junctions**: small channels between cells for communication - **Hemidesmosomes**: proteins linking cells to connective tissue **Glands:** - **Exocrine glands**: Secrete substances onto surfaces or into ducts (e.g., sweat glands). - **Endocrine glands**: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (e.g., thyroid gland). - **Unicellular glands**: Single-celled glands (e.g., goblet cells). - **Multicellular glands**: Composed of many cells (e.g., salivary glands). **Connective tissue:** - Abundant - Consists of cells separated by extracellular matrix - Connects tissue one to another - Transport, protects, storage, movement, support - Has blood supply except ligaments, tendons, cartilage **Cells of connective tissue:** - Adipose cells - Mast cells: in small blood vessels - Macrophages: provide protection - White blood cells - Mesenchyme: stem cells, first connective tissue that forms all other connective tissues **Extracellular matric of connective tissue:** - **Protein fibers:** \- collagen: strength \- elastic fibers: stretch and flexibility \- reticular fibers: support soft tissues - **Ground substance:** gel like material between cells - **Fluid:** blood **Classification of connective tissue:** - **Loose connective tissue**: Includes areolar, adipose, and reticular tissue. - **Dense connective tissue**: Includes dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic tissue. - **Specialized connective tissue**: Includes cartilage, bone, and blood. - **Areolar**: Cushions and holds organs in place. - **Adipose**: Stores fat for energy and insulation. - **Dense regular**: Provides strong attachment (e.g., tendons). - **Cartilage**: Provides flexible support and cushioning. - **Bone**: Provides structure and protection. - **Blood**: Transports nutrients, gases, and wastes. **Location of connective tissues:** - **Location of connective tissue:** - **Areolar**: Found under the skin and around organs. - **Adipose**: Found under the skin and around organs. - **Dense regular**: Found in tendons and ligaments. - **Cartilage**: Found in joints, nose, and ear. - **Bone**: Forms the skeleton. - **Blood**: Circulates throughout the body. - Perichondrium surrounds cartilage - Types: hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic - Composed of chondrocytes located in lacunae - Avascular - No nerve - Heals slowly **Blood:** - Fluid matrix and lacks fibers - Matrix formed by other tissues - Moves through vessels - Red cells, white cells - Bone marrow forms blood cells **Muscle tissue:** - Contracts or shortens with force - Moves body and plumps blood - Types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth **Nervous tissue:** - Neurons can produce electrical signals called action potential s - Parts: cell body, axon, dendrites - Types: multipolar, polar, pseudo-unipolar **Tissue membranes:** - Thin sheet of tissue that covers a structure or lines cavity - Superficial epithelial tissue and underlying connective tissue - **Mucous:** line cavities that open to the outside of body, secrete mucus, found un respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems - **Serous:** simple squamous epithelium, basement membrane, loose connective tissue, line cavities not open to exterior, pericardial, pleural, peritoneal - **Synovial:** line freely movable joint, produce acid **Tissue damage:** - Body responds to tissue damage with an inflammatory response - Mobilize immune defenses - Readiness, hear, swelling, pain **Tissue repair:** - **Regeneration:** new cells of the same type are produced, function Is restored - **Replacement:** new type of tissue develops, resulting in scar and loss of some function **Aging effects on tissues:** - Cell divides more slowly - Rate of blood cell synthesis declines - Injuries don't heal rapidly - Collagen fibers become more irregular - Elastic fibers become less elastic - Tendons and ligaments become less flexible and more fragile