Introduction to Mass Communication PDF

ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY [Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC] (A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu) KARAIKUDI – 630 003 BA [English]...

ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY [Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC] (A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu) KARAIKUDI – 630 003 BA [English] V - Semester 112 53 INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION  Reviewer Dr. D. Baskaran Assistant Professor of English, DDE, Alagappa University, Karaikudi Author: Dr Hemanta Kumar Joshi, Prof & Head, Dept. of Hindi Journalism, IIMC, JNU New Campus Manjari Joshi, News Reader, Delhi Doordarshan and Freelance Journalist Units: (1, 2, 3, 4.0-4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.5-4.9, 5.0-5.6, 5.8-5.12, 6) Amit Sharma, HOD, Department of Journalism and Mass Communication, IIMT College of Management, CCSU, Meerut Units: (5.7, 8, 10.4, 11.3, 12.4, 13, 14) Ravindra Dubey, Visiting Professor, Guru Govind Singh Indraprastha University and Delhi University Units: (7.0-7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.5-7.9, 9, 10.0-10.1, 10.2, 10.3) Prof.(Dr.) S.S. 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Office: A-27, 2nd Floor, Mohan Co-operative Industrial Estate, New Delhi 1100 44  Website: www.vikaspublishing.com  Email: [email protected] Work Order No.AU/DDE/DE12-27/Preparation and Printing of Course Materials/2020 Dated 12.08.2020 Copies - 1000  SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE Introduction to Mass Communication BLOCK I: INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION UNIT 1: Mass Communication - Definition, Needs and Significance Unit 1: Overview of Mass UNIT 2: Types - Theories Communication UNIT 3: Nature and Function (Pages 1-14); UNIT 4: Mass Media - Definition - Functions and Modes Unit 2: Types and Theories of Mass Communication (Pages 15-38); Unit 3: Nature and Function of Mass Communication (Pages 39-43); Unit 4: Overview of Mass Media (Pages 44-57) BLOCK II: JOURNALISM UNIT 5: Types and Features Unit 5: Types and Features UNIT 6: Journalism - Journalist Functions of Journalism UNIT 7: News Paper Departments - Functions (Pages 58-76); UNIT 8: News Agencies Unit 6: Journalism and Journalist (Pages 77-94); Unit 7: Introduction to Newspapers (Pages 95-111); Unit 8: Overview of News Agencies (Pages 112-118) BLOCK III: MASS MEDIA UNIT 9: Broadcasting Journalism - Television and its Programmes Unit 9: Broadcasting Journalism UNIT 10: Radio and its Programmes - Films (Pages 119-139); UNIT 11: Mass Media - Uses and Misuses in Modern Society Unit 10: Radio and Films UNIT 12: Mass Media - Government Control and Regulatory Measures (Pages 140-160); Unit 11: Mass Media: Uses and Misuses in Modern Society (Pages 161-166); Unit 12: Mass Media: Government Control and Regulatory Measures (Pages 167-184) BLOCK IV: MASS COMMUNICATION UNIT 13: Mass Communication - Training - Needs Unit 13: Training in Mass UNIT 14: Future of Mass Communication Communication (Pages 185-191); Unit 14: Future of Mass Communication (Pages 192-198)  CONTENTS BLOCK I: INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF MASS COMMUNICATION 1-14 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Definition 1.3 Need and Significance 1.3.1 The Role of Mass Media 1.3.2 Use of Mass Communication 1.4 Themes and Issues of Mass Communication 1.4.1 Issues of Mass Communication 1.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 1.6 Summary 1.7 Key Words 1.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 1.9 Further Readings UNIT 2 TYPES AND THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION 15-38 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Objectives 2.2 Types of Mass Communication 2.3 Models of Mass Communication 2.3.1 Shannon and Weaver’s Model (1948) 2.3.2 Harold Lasswell’s Model (1948) 2.3.3 David Berlo’s Model (1960) 2.3.4 Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model (1953) 2.3.5 Charles E. Osgood’s Model (1954) 2.3.6 George Gerbner’s Model (1956) 2.3.7 Wilbur Schramm’s Model (1971) 2.3.8 Westley and MacLean’s Model (1957) 2.4 Theories of Mass Communication 2.4.1 Hypodermic Needle Theory 2.4.2 Psychological Difference Theory 2.4.3 Personal Influence Theory 2.4.4 Dependency Theory 2.4.5 Cultivation Theory 2.4.6 Agenda Setting Theory 2.4.7 The Theory of Culture Industry 2.4.8 Mass Society Theory 2.4.9 Political-Economical Media Theory 2.4.10 Development Communication Theory 2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 2.6 Summary 2.7 Key Words 2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 2.9 Further Readings UNIT 3 NATURE AND FUNCTION OF MASS COMMUNICATION 39-43 3.0 Introduction 3.1 Objectives 3.2 Nature of Mass Communication 3.2.1 Function of Mass Communication 3.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 3.4 Summary 3.5 Key Words 3.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 3.7 Further Readings UNIT 4 OVERVIEW OF MASS MEDIA 44-57 4.0 Introduction 4.1 Objectives 4.2 Definition of Mass Media 4.3 Functions of Mass Media 4.3.1 Symbolic Function of the Mass Media 4.4 Modes of Mass Media 4.4.1 Print Media 4.4.2 Radio 4.4.3 Cinema 4.4.4 Television 4.4.5 New Media 4.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 4.6 Summary 4.7 Key Words 4.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 4.9 Further Readings BLOCK II: JOURNALISM UNIT 5 TYPES AND FEATURES OF JOURNALISM 58-76 5.0 Introduction 5.1 Objectives 5.2 Definition and Nature 5.2.1 Origin and Nature of Journalism 5.3 Scope 5.4 Purpose of Journalism 5.5 Types of Journalism 5.5.1 Mainstream Journalism 5.5.2 Area-Specific Journalism 5.5.3 Magazine Journalism 5.5.4 Tabloid Journalism 5.5.5 Investigative Journalism 5.5.6 Advocacy Journalism 5.5.7 Interpretative Journalism 5.6 Current Trends in Journalism 5.6.1 Convergent Journalism 5.6.2 Online Journalism 5.6.3 Fashion Journalism  5.6.4 Celebrity Journalism 5.6.5 Sports Journalism 5.6.6 Citizen Journalism 5.6.7 Environmental Journalism 5.6.8 Business and Finance Journalism 5.6.9 Ambush Journalism 5.6.10 Churnalism 5.6.11 Gonzo Journalism 5.7 Features of Journalism 5.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 5.9 Summary 5.10 Key Words 5.11 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 5.12 Further Readings UNIT 6 JOURNALISM AND JOURNALIST 77-94 6.0 Introduction 6.1 Objectives 6.2 Functions of Journalism 6.3 Principles and Ethics of Journalism 6.3.1 Canons of Journalism 6.3.2 Ethical Standards 6.3.3 Press Councils and Ethics of Journalism 6.4 Functions of Journalists 6.4.1 Journalists as Communicators 6.4.2 Responsibilities of Journalists 6.4.3 Qualities of a Journalist 6.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 6.6 Summary 6.7 Key Words 6.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 6.9 Further Readings UNIT 7 INTRODUCTION TO NEWSPAPERS 95-111 7.0 Introduction 7.1 Objectives 7.2 Definition and Types of News 7.2.1 Types of News 7.3 Value, Elements and Functions of News 7.3.1 Elements of News 7.3.2 Functions of News 7.4 Departments and Functions 7.4.1 Various Departments of an Organization 7.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 7.6 Summary 7.7 Key Words 7.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 7.9 Further Readings UNIT 8 OVERVIEW OF NEWS AGENCIES 112-118 8.0 Introduction 8.1 Objectives 8.2 Features of News Agencies 8.2.1 Understanding the News Agencies 8.2.2 Difference from Newspapers 8.2.3 Ownership Pattern 8.2.4 Earning Structure 8.2.5 Organizational Structure 8.2.6 Functioning of News Agencies 8.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 8.4 Summary 8.5 Key Words 8.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 8.7 Further Readings BLOCK III: MASS MEDIA UNIT 9 BROADCASTING JOURNALISM 119-139 9.0 Introduction 9.1 Objectives 9.2 Television and its Evolution 9.2.1 History of Television 9.3 Television Genres 9.3.1 News Related Programme 9.3.2 Entertainment Related Programme 9.3.3 Religious Programme 9.3.4 Emerging Trends 9.4 Television and its Programmes 9.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 9.6 Summary 9.7 Key Words 9.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 9.9 Further Readings UNIT 10 RADIO AND FILMS 140-160 10.0 Introduction 10.1 Objectives 10.2 Radio and its History 10.2.1 Emergence of Radio in India 10.3 Radio and its Programmes 10.3.1 Spoken Word Programmes 10.3.2 Outside Broadcast Production of News, Sporting and Mega Events 10.4 Films 10.4.1 Characteristics of Films 10.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 10.6 Summary 10.7 Key Words 10.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 10.9 Further Readings UNIT 11 MASS MEDIA: USES AND MISUSES IN MODERN SOCIETY 161-166 11.0 Introduction 11.1 Objectives 11.2 Advantages and Limitations of Mass Media 11.3 Uses and Misuses in Modern Society 11.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 11.5 Summary 11.6 Key Words 11.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 11.8 Further Readings UNIT 12 MASS MEDIA: GOVERNMENT CONTROL AND REGULATORY MEASURES 167-184 12.0 Introduction 12.1 Objectives 12.2 Government Control and Regulatory Measures 12.2.1 1800s: The Beginning of Press Regulation 12.2.2 The 1900s: British Period 12.2.3 Post-Independence Press Regulation 12.3 Press Council of India 12.3.1 Role of PCI in Maintaining Ethical Journalistic Standards 12.3.2 Powers of the Press Council 12.3.3 Working of the PCI 12.3.4 Protection of Confidential Sources of Information 12.3.5 Press and Registration Appellate Board 12.3.6 Guidelines and Policy Framing 12.4 Reasonable Restrictions on Media 12.4.1 Accountability of Media 12.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 12.6 Summary 12.7 Key Words 12.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 12.9 Further Readings BLOCK IV: MASS COMMUNICATION UNIT 13 TRAINING IN MASS COMMUNICATION 185-191 13.0 Introduction 13.1 Objectives 13.2 Better Understanding of Mass Communication 13.2.1 Difference between Mass Communication and Journalism 13.2.2 Benefits of Learning Mass Communication 13.3 Training in Mass Communication 13.4 Need for Mass Communication 13.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 13.6 Summary 13.7 Key Words 13.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 13.9 Further Readings UNIT 14 FUTURE OF MASS COMMUNICATION 192-198 14.0 Introduction 14.1 Objectives 14.2 Changing Face of Mass Communication 14.3 Evolution of Mass Communication 14.4 Emerging Trends of Mass Communication 14.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 14.6 Summary 14.7 Key Words 14.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 14.9 Further Readings Introduction INTRODUCTION In the world of 21st century, defined by information technology and electronics, NOTES the power of media is for all of us to see. More and more people are getting attracted to various forms of media. In fact, print, electronics and cyber journalism are largely defining the styles, choices, attitudes, hopes and aspirations of the masses. Under such a scenario, the studies in journalism and mass communication are acquiring more and more importance. The process of transmitting and sharing information through mass media to broad segments of the population is mass communication. As these technologies are used for the dissemination of information, which is part of journalism and advertising, they are commonly understood to apply to different types of media. Mass communication varies from other modes of communication, such as interpersonal communication and organizational communication, as it relies on unique tools that send data to multiple recipients. The delivery of messages to several individuals at a time is generally called mass communication. But mass communication can be interpreted, in a complete sense, as the mechanism of comprehensive information circulation within regions and across the globe. This book, Introduction to Mass Communication, is divided into fourteen units that follow the self-instruction mode with each unit beginning with an Introduction to the unit, followed by an outline of the Objectives. The detailed content is then presented in a simple but structured manner interspersed with Check Your Progress Questions to test the student’s understanding of the topic. A Summary along with a list of Key Words and a set of Self Assessment Questions and Exercises is also provided at the end of each unit for recapitulation. Self-Instructional 8 Material  Overview of Mass BLOCK - I Communication INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION NOTES UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF MASS COMMUNICATION Structure 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Definition 1.3 Need and Significance 1.3.1 The Role of Mass Media 1.3.2 Use of Mass Communication 1.4 Themes and Issues of Mass Communication 1.4.1 Issues of Mass Communication 1.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 1.6 Summary 1.7 Key Words 1.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 1.9 Further Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION The process of transmitting and sharing information through mass media to vast segments of the population is mass communication. As these technologies are used for the flow of information, which is part of journalism and advertising, they are commonly understood to apply to different types of media.Mass communication varies from other modes of communication, such as interpersonal communication and organisational communication, as it relies on specific resources that send data to multiple recipients.The study of mass communication is primarily concerned with how the content of mass communication persuades the action, attitude, opinion, or emotion of the people receiving the information or otherwise influences it. In this unit, we will discuss the definition, need, and significance of mass communication. It will also focus on the themes and issues of mass communication. 1.1 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to:  Understand the meaning of mass communication  Discuss the need and significance of mass communication  Describe the themes and issues of mass communication Self-Instructional Material 1 Overview of Mass Communication 1.2 DEFINITION Communication can be categorized into different types depending upon the level NOTES at which it takes place, the direction it takes or by its very nature. Some of the commonly referred to types of communication are intra-personal communication, inter-personal communication, group communication, mass communication, etc. Most of the times, the type of communication used by us is interpersonal. In this process, an individual communicates his feelings, desires and opinions to the society. It may be a one on one conversation or an individual speaking to the members of a group. Intra-personal communication, on the other hand, is the communication that one has with oneself, i.e., in the mind. In group communication, communication takes place between three or more individuals. Mass communication is an extension of group communication, but it also involves heterogeneous masses. The homogeneity of the audiences makes interpersonal and group communication similar to each other. People involved in such communication not only share the code of communication, they by and large share thought process, culture and attitudes too. The feedback process of these types of communication is also different as the feedback is immediate in interpersonal and group communications, whereas the feedback is delayed and more complex in mass communication as different types of mass media are used for transmitting the messages to masses. Mass communication is a one-way communication in the sense that it is one-to-many kind of communication whereas interpersonal communication is one- to-one communication. In mass communication or one-to-many type of communication, the sender may think or pretend to know his/her audience but is never sure to whom all he/she is communicating. The challenge of mass communication alone has forced people concerned or involved in it to study the nature, attitudes, demography, etc. of the audience as scientifically as possible. The shift of journalism studies from language departments to independent interdisciplinary discipline is a result of the complexities of mass communication. 1.3 NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE The simplest definition of mass communication would be that it is a ‘public communication transmitted electronically or mechanically’. In this way messages are transmitted or sent to large, perhaps millions or billions of people spread across the world. The ‘mass’ in mass communication refers to the group of people towards whom this communication is directed. Mass communication media are so closely intertwined with different aspects of our lives that it becomes difficult to identify their functions for each one of us. In order to find out how mass media functions in various societies, one must look and find out how and why people listen to radio, watch television, read newspapers, go to the movies or surf the Internet. In this way, it may be possible for us to Self-Instructional 2 Material collate various common functions of media among the individuals. It will also Overview of Mass Communication become easy to know how people use media for a variety of functions. The main functions of mass media are given below:  Inform NOTES  Educate  Entertain These are the basic functions of media. News and discussions may inform you; radio and television programmes may educate you; films and television serials and programmes may entertain you. Let us learn more about these functions of media. Those who write, direct or produce programmes are the people who give us messages. Let us consider the example of a news bulletin on radio or television or a news item in a newspaper. They inform us of some event or happening—‘A new Prime Minister is taking oath of office today’; ‘The country has developed a new breed of Biotech cotton’; ‘India has beaten Pakistan in cricket’; ‘25 persons killed in a bomb blast in Mumbai’. All these inform us. These properly written messages are given to us by the people who function as the communicators. The social activists, doctors and experts from various fields of activity speak to us on radio or television, or write in a newspaper about how to deal with social evils, prevent a disease or how to save income tax, etc. Experts tell farmers on radio or television about a new crop, seed or agricultural practice. In this manner the farmers get educated. The commercial cinema, television serials and music programmes entertain us and take us away from the hardships of our daily lives. In analyzing the functions of mass communication, we should not be limited to what people do with media, but what media do to the people: How they affect opinions and attitudes, culture, habits, etc. This approach towards the study of mass communication is more concerned about the effect of media and hence called ‘Effect Approach’. Media scholars and social scientists are concerned with both the processes. Most commonly accepted functions of mass communication besides the one that we discussed earlier are given here below:  Surveillance of the environment: Media plays the role of watchman. Some people use the expression ‘informer’. In fact, mass media functions as the eyes, ears and voice of the audience. We believe in their reports and make these a basis for shaping our attitudes, thoughts, and activities. For example, the advertisements get us acquainted with new products and services. They enable the customers to arrive at logical purchasing decisions. At the level of the individual, the media’s surveillance of the environment function o enhances personal esteem, o sets up a ground for social interaction, Self-Instructional Material 3 Overview of Mass o provides information and knowledge, and Communication o facilitates prestige and social status.  Correlation: Lasswell states that one of the key functions played by NOTES mass communication for the society is to associate the whole society’s response to the environment, i.e., it facilitates the development of public or mass opinion. Communication serves to generate consensus in a society on major issues. For a healthy democracy an enlightened or informed opinion is very necessary.  Transmission of social inheritance: Presently media have acquired the function of social inheritance transmission, which was being earlier performed by the teachers, parents and the elders. These days, media provide the basic frames of reference to the society. Social uprooting, urbanization, and relative anonymity and the transmission from the traditional social institutions such as clan and joint family have enhanced the media’s role as the transmitter of values and knowledge. Today, mass media have become an indispensable force to carry out the role of socialization and transmission of social heritage.  Dysfunctions associated with mass communication: The well known communication expert, Lasswell, held that mass communication can be harmful or dysfunctional as well as functional for the society. If the ruling class or governments is autocratic and is apprehensive of the public opinion, it can deny information and even mislead the subjects by using misinformation and false propaganda. Dysfunction can also be born of the inability to effectively sue the mass communication media or effectively process the information. 1.3.1 The Role of Mass Media Historians maintain that communication is the characteristic feature of society. Even the pre-literate cultures communicated within themselves and sporadically with others as well. With the invention of various kinds of inventions, the process of communication has been transformed into a mass opportunity. Researchers and communication scholars have analysed the function of mass communication in the society. Mass media plays some basic roles such as ‘surveillance, interpretation, socialization and entertainment’. We can say that there is not much variance between the roles and functions of mass communication.By surveillance we mean the information and news role of the mass media. This role may be divided into:  Warning surveillance related to the news media (information regarding pending threats like military attack, floods and gloomy economic circumstances)  Instrumental surveillance related to both popular media and news (transmission of practical information regarding entertainment guides, news products, stock prices, etc.). Self-Instructional 4 Material  Surveillance information may also be gathered from films, television Overview of Mass Communication programmes, books and other kinds of literary elements containing information on human issues. Through the electronic media information travels very quickly. The main advantage of this is that it facilitates instantaneous awareness. However, the basic disadvantage is that even misinformation travels just as fast as the true NOTES information. Usually the speedy dissemination often means that the assumed facts and accusations are not verified before their transmission.For example, there are many health, astrology and business shows on the television nowadays. The news of the terrorist attack in Mumbai on 26 November 2010 was also disseminated through newschannels. The interpretation function of mass media sets up a framework for the new information and commentary regarding its meaning and significance. Conventionally, the editorial and commentary sections in the newspapers provided such interpretation, keeping in reserve the news pages for the apparently unbiased information. Reporting is supposed to be objective in nature, i.e., free from any kind of interpretation and comment. The concept was that reporters will provide factual information unaffected by the readers and commentary. Afterwards the readers will decide for themselves about the relevance and meaning of the information provided to them. However, this kind of objectivity is not apparent presently in newspapers, and the huge amount of television reporting appears to have mixed the commentary and news reporting functions. For the producers of such messages the interpretation is the function while persuasion is the motivation. For example, newspapers inform the people what they should expect from a rise or fall in the stock exchange rates, how the rise in the price of petrol will affect them and why has there been a rise in the price, etc. The Coalgate crisis that took place in India in August 2012 was brought to the public’s notice by the media. The media plays a vital role in socialization, transmitting values in the society, mainly the modelling of proper attitudes and behaviour. The conception is that the mass media represent the images of society. The viewers can learn and adopt for themselves by taking clues from these images. It helps in creating a stable society having common social values. In its basic form, the media’s socialization role provides a common discussion topic to the people, e.g., yesterday’s cricket match, the new blockbuster movie, etc. Film and television possess the biggest potential for socialization since they appear to be the most realistic to the viewers. Particularly for the young people these are very influential. The role models or images of social behaviour, fashion, grooming styles and scores of other aspects of social interaction are presented through film and television. Their usefulness is obvious in the resemblance of youth culture world over, wherein the media provides the common influence. Young adults and teens in societies as varied as Saudi Arabia or Canada or Finland or Taiwan possess various common tastes in dancing, fashion, music, hair styles, etc. Also, the show, Satyameve Jayate, tried to bring social change in India, and so, was much applauded by the various sections of the media and received wide coverage. Self-Instructional Material 5 Overview of Mass Entertainment is a related function of mass media. It is sometimes termed as Communication the diversion function since it provides a kind of diversion from the real world. Entertainment has been a significant part of society. With the help of sound recordings, different kinds of entertainers are in a position to attract audience NOTES world over. Sculptors, painters and poets are able to reach mass audiences through magazines and books. The media’s entertainment function is divided into three categories:  Stimulation (antidote to boredom),  Relaxation (soothing and meditative environment), and  Release (safe expression of anger, hostility, fear, etc.). There can be no two opinions about the fact that the mass media has invaded each aspect ofour everyday lives. One can watch movies, news, travel shows, cartoons, or reality shows on the television.There is absolutely no end to the way mass media tries to entertain the masses for whom it is meant. Sociologists have found that the extensive availability of quality media entertainment functions as a very great channel of diversion. More and more people are becoming spectators in sports, music, theatre, etc. It is comparatively very easy and entertaining to watch soccer match on television in comparison to actually work hard, practice and risk injury through personal participation in the game. 1.3.2 Use of Mass Communication The use of mass communication or mass media has been studied thoroughly by Katz in 1959 when he came up with his theory of use and gratification. In his theory he emphasized upon studying the reasons for which people use media instead of studying what media does to people. This was in a way a reaction to the contemporary media research which had been almost camouflaged by election studies and the use of media to influence the electorate. Uses and Gratifications Theory became a popular approach to understanding mass communication. It placed more focus on the consumer, or audience, instead of the actual message itself by asking ‘what people do with media’ rather than ‘what media does to people’ (Katz, 1959). In a way this theory once again introduces the concept of selective exposure and selective perception, though the emphasis this time has shifted from masses as mere audiences to masses as consumers. It says that the choices made by the people are motivated by the desire to satisfy or ‘gratify’ a range of needs. Hence, the use and gratification approach attempts to identify how people use the media to gratify their needs.The principal elements of uses and gratifications include:  Our psychological state and the environment,  Our needs and the motives to communicate,  The media and our attitudes and expectations from the media, Self-Instructional 6 Material   Functional alternatives to using media, Overview of Mass Communication  Our communication behaviour, and  Outcomes and consequences of our behaviour. People use media such as TV, Internet, newspaper, radio, etc., to gratify NOTES their needs for information, entertainment, social interaction, escapism, etc. For example, if a person is feeling down and out, he may prefer listening to sad music so that he can relate to it and can look at his situation objectively. Similarly, we all have a preference for any one newschannel that we see as better than others. This is so because we expect certain channels to maintain higher levels of objectivity in their news telecast. McQuail points out that the audience normally seeks to gratify certain needs, which could be their requirements of surveillance or information, personal identity, personal relationship, social interaction and diversion or entertainment. People want information to find out about the events happening in their society and the world. They seek advice or opinion on practical matters and they also want information for their self education. Personal identity need refers to the reinforcement of values and beliefs, knowing other people’s values and thereby gaining insights into their own self. Social interaction need relates to social empathy and interaction which gives people a sense of belonging and finally entertainment is a need that is necessary for relaxing and emotional release as well as to get to know the cultural and aesthetic enjoyment. Figure 1.1 illustrates the Uses and Gratification Theory Model. Fig. 1.1 Uses and Gratification Theory Model Self-Instructional Material 7 Overview of Mass However, Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) have categorized the various Communication needs and gratification for people into five categories. This is represented in Figure 1.2.  Cognitive needs NOTES  Affective needs  Personal integrative needs  Social integrative needs  Tension free needs Fig. 1.2 Katz’s Categorization of Needs The Use and Gratification Theory too has its criticism. Many scholars find that in order to become audience centric, this theory underplays the media and it does not recognize the power of media. However, in spite of these criticisms the most important and meaningful contribution is to bring the individual members of the mass society at the centre stage of mass communication process and studies.The above discussion of needs and gratification tell us about the reasons and possibilities for which mass communication or mass media are being used or can be used. However, it would be appropriate to remind that ultimately the media is used by the people for three basic needs that are information, education and entertainment. Check Your Progress 1. How is the feedback process different in interpersonal, group and mass communication? 2. Define mass communication. 3. List the various categories of needs and gratification for people according to Katz, Gurevitch and Haas. Self-Instructional 8 Material  Overview of Mass 1.4 THEMES AND ISSUES OF MASS Communication COMMUNICATION Themes relate to the effects, the significance and the social origins of mass NOTES communication. These themes are as follows:  Time: Time is an indispensible component of communication since it is important when a communication takes place and how long it takes for the communication to take place. In other words, communication depends on time; it takes place in time. Developments in communication technology as only increased the significance of the element of time in communication since great volume of information can be transmitted quickly. Communication technology has also introduced ways in which information can be stored for recovery at a later date.  Place: Communication is not produced in vacuum; it has a definite context and invariably reflects the features of the place or location of its origin. It serves as a connecting medium thereby reducing the distance that separates cultures, countries and people. At the same time, mass communication also has a delocalizing effect: it creates a ‘global place’ with which people are becoming more and more familiar.  Social reality: Behind the theory of mass communication is the assumption that we inhabit a world of events and material circumstances that are ‘real.’ Therefore, one also assumes that these events and circumstances will be reported to us with some degree of completeness and accuracy. In other words, although it is not easy to asses or even define ‘truth,’ some notion of truth is assigned as a standard to the content of mass communication, specifically to the genre of news.  Meaning: The interpretation of the ‘message’ of mass media is an important theme. There is no way of saying with certainty what is meant since, as seen above there is no single source of meaning. There are theories of mass media however, which make assumptions about the meaning of what is communicated. These theories view communication from the perspective of either the sender, or the receiver or the observer.  Cause and effect: The question of cause and effect of mass communication is central to an understanding of the functions of mass communication. The theories of mass communications attempt to resolve these questions by enquiring whether a factor causes another. Is it that media is responsible for certain incidents that take place in society or is it that the content of media is itself a reflection and an outcome of a deeper social malaise or concern? So, questions that arise regarding cause and effect are not merely about the consequences of the message of mass media on society; they are also questions regarding the rise and appeal of the institution of media. Self-Instructional Material 9 Overview of Mass  Cultural difference: This is an important theme since it sounds Communication contradictory to the theme of place; however the two themes can co-exist. The contention here is that regardless of the universalizing tendency of technology, the use and production of mass media is a cultural practice NOTES which by itself becomes a form of resistance to attempts at universalization. So although the working of media institutions and mass communications are similar the world over, the study of issues related to media highlights that these workings are effected and determined by cultural differences at the level of nation, ethnic and racial groups, religion, etc. 1.4.1 Issues of Mass Communication You need to be aware that the issues that are discussed below are largely applicable to mass communication in nations that are fully or partially developed, and have a secular society, elective democracies and free market or mixed economies and nations which are integrated into a wider set of political and economic international relations of conflict, competition and exchange. Many will dismiss these as characteristics of ‘western’ countries. Unfortunately, such is the hegemony of western practices and standards that western media theory has also become a part of the process of creating hegemony. Even though the object of media is to provide ‘objective’ accounts, the study of the subject of mass communication cannot avoid engaging with questions of social and political conflict and of economic struggles. All countries are plagued with tensions and conflicts that in the current scenario of globalization extend to the international arena. Media automatically gets involved in and engages with these conflicts and contradictions since it is the producer and disseminator of events and their meanings. It naturally follows that it would be ambitious to expect the study of mass communication information that is scientifically verifiable or theoretically neutral. Divergent perspectives also characterize the discipline of mass communication. Difference exists between the progressive left and theconservative right tendencies and the critical approach and the applied approach. While the liberal left is critical of power exercised by media in the hands of the state and business houses (topics that you will study in a separate unit), the conservative right finds fault with the role played by media in demolishing traditional values. Similarly, according to Windahl and Signitzer, there exists a divide between the critical approach and the applied approach to the theory of mass communication. The object of critical theory is to highlight the underlying faults of media practice and to relate these faults to social issues. The object of applied theory is to develop an understanding of the communication processes so as to make mass communication more effective. Another axis of theoretical variation is that which was identified by Golding and Murdock: the media-centric and the socio-centric approaches. Media-centric approach attends on the media’s sphere of activity alone, activity that is undeniably also driven by changes in communication technology. It gives much more influence Self-Instructional and autonomy to communication and accords mass media as the primary agency 10 Material of social change. In other words, media-centric approach gives tremendous focus Overview of Mass Communication to the specific content of such different types of media as interactive, print, television, etc.) and the consequences of the different kinds of media. Socio-centric approach primarily sees media as a reflection of economic, social and political forces. Hence, socio-centric approach proposes a theory of media which is little more than an NOTES application of broader social theory. Issues which are of relevance to mass communication and its theoretical framework are as follows:  Social issues o Violence, crime, and deviance o Social order and disorder and the maintenance of peace and security in society o Commercialism and consumerism o The emergence and mediation of information society o The definition of social experience  Political issues o War and terrorism o Political propaganda and campaign o Movements of liberation and revolution in states or their parts  Cultural issues o Cultural production o The quality of life o Cultural hegemonization and globalization o Questions about cultural, ethnic, linguistic identities  Normative issues o Inequalities: ethnic, class, sexual, gender o Freedom of speech and expression o Media ethics, media professionalism and media regulation  Issues regarding the effect and power of media o Formation of public opinion o Creation of celebrities o News making o Effective communication Check Your Progress 4. What is the difference between the critical and applied theories? 5. What do you mean by socio-centric approach? Self-Instructional Material 11 Overview of Mass Communication 1.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS QUESTIONS NOTES 1. The feedback process of the various types of communication is different as the feedback is immediate in interpersonal and group communications, whereas the feedback is delayed and more complex in mass communication as different types of mass media are used for transmitting the messages to masses. 2. The simplest definition of mass communication would be that it is a ‘public communication transmitted electronically or mechanically’. 3. Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) have categorized the various needs and gratification for people into five categories: (a) Cognitive needs (b) Affective needs (c) Personal integrative needs (d) Social integrative needs (e) Tension free needs 4. The object of critical theory is to highlight the underlying faults of media practice and to relate these faults to social issues, while the object of applied theory is to develop an understanding of the communication processes so as to make mass communication more effective. 5. The socio-centric approach primarily sees media as a reflection of economic, social and political forces. Hence, socio-centric approach proposes a theory of media which is little more than an application of broader social theory. 1.6 SUMMARY  Communication can be categorized into different types depending upon the level at which it takes place, the direction it takes or by its very nature.  Mass communication is a one-way communication in the sense that it is one-to-many kind of communication whereas interpersonal communication is one-to-one communication.  The simplest definition of mass communication would be that it is a ‘public communication transmitted electronically or mechanically’.  In order to find out how mass media functions in various societies, one must look and find out how and why people listen to radio, watch television, read newspapers, go to the movies or surf the Internet. Self-Instructional 12 Material   In analyzing the functions of mass communication, we should not be limited Overview of Mass Communication to what people do with media, but what media do to the people: How they affect opinions and attitudes, culture, habits, etc.  The use of mass communication or mass media has been studied thoroughly NOTES by Katz in 1959 when he came up with his theory of use and gratification. In his theory he emphasized upon studying the reasons for which people use media instead of studying what media does to people.  Themes relate to the effects, the significance and the social origins of mass communication.  Even though the object of media is to provide ‘objective’ accounts, the study of the subject of mass communication cannot avoid engaging with questions of social and political conflict and of economic struggles. 1.7 KEY WORDS  Surveillance: It means continuous observation of a place, person, group, or ongoing activity in order to gather information.  Uprooting: It means to displace from a country or traditional habitat.  Propaganda: It is the dissemination of information—facts, arguments, rumours, half-truths, or lies—to influence public opinion. 1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES Short-Answer Questions 1. What are the issues relevant in the field of mass communication? 2. Write a short note on the use of mass communication. Long-Answer Questions 1. Explain the most commonly accepted functions of mass communication. 2. Describe the themes related to mass communication. 1.9 FURTHER READINGS Holmes, David. 2005. Communication Theory: Media, Technology and Society. London: Sage Publishers. Hartley, John. 2002. Communication, Culture and Media Studies: The key Concepts. New York: Routledge. Self-Instructional Material 13 Overview of Mass Rosengren, Karl Eric. 2000. Communication: An Introduction. London: Sage Communication Publishers. Fiske, John. 1982. Introduction to Communications Studies. London: Methuen & Co. 5. Asa Berger, Arthur. 1995. Essentials of Mass Communication NOTES Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Mcquail, Denis. 1983. Mass Communication Theory. London: Sage Publication. Schramm, Wilbur. 1966. The Story of Human Communication. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. William, Raymond. 1976. Communications. London: Penguin Books. Self-Instructional 14 Material  Types and Theories of UNIT 2 TYPES AND THEORIES OF Mass Communication MASS COMMUNICATION NOTES Structure 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Objectives 2.2 Types of Mass Communication 2.3 Models of Mass Communication 2.3.1 Shannon and Weaver’s Model (1948) 2.3.2 Harold Lasswell’s Model (1948) 2.3.3 David Berlo’s Model (1960) 2.3.4 Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model (1953) 2.3.5 Charles E. Osgood’s Model (1954) 2.3.6 George Gerbner’s Model (1956) 2.3.7 Wilbur Schramm’s Model (1971) 2.3.8 Westley and MacLean’s Model (1957) 2.4 Theories of Mass Communication 2.4.1 Hypodermic Needle Theory 2.4.2 Psychological Difference Theory 2.4.3 Personal Influence Theory 2.4.4 Dependency Theory 2.4.5 Cultivation Theory 2.4.6 Agenda Setting Theory 2.4.7 The Theory of Culture Industry 2.4.8 Mass Society Theory 2.4.9 Political-Economical Media Theory 2.4.10 Development Communication Theory 2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions 2.6 Summary 2.7 Key Words 2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises 2.9 Further Readings 2.0 INTRODUCTION We are living in a different world today. The world which is full of information and technologically advanced with a continuous process of information exchange. Our society has come up with different types of mass communication. These different modes help us to receive the information and keep us aware of the happenings around the world. Our world is hyper connected with the help of these different modes of mass communication. Information has become vital for our growth and progress in today’s era. The existence of mass communication has helped information to reach faster and take action to avoid any risk. Mass communication has also given us a chance to speak, which has helped society to understand certain concepts Self-Instructional Material 15 Types and Theories of from different perspectives. In this unit, we are going to understand the different Mass Communication types of mass communication that currently exists, along with the different theories of mass communication. NOTES 2.1 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to:  Understand the different types of mass communication  Discuss the different models of mass communication  Describe the different theories of mass communication 2.2 TYPES OF MASS COMMUNICATION Mass communication media have special features as they are capable to reach a large number of people spreading across different geographical areas. They are used for the dissemination of information across the world. They are many in number. But for the sake of our learning, we can broadly divide them into following category –  Print Media  Broadcast Media  Transit Media  Digital Media Print media Print media is called the traditional or conventional media. Newspapers, magazines, books, journals, etc. come under the category of print media. Any print publication which is meant for the large number of people is considered as print media. The word is frequently used in journalism. In common term, print media is used for newspapers, magazines, tabloids etc. There was a time when print media used to rule the news industry. But as technology evolved and new form of media became popular, print media lost its glory. But its importance can never be challenge. Still today, print media is considered the most reliable among all form of media. Most of the elderly people start their morning with newspaper. They enjoy reading the newspaper with a cup of tea and solving crosswords while travelling. Even in the age of television and mobile print media is keeping its prominence in terms of reliability and reference. Self-Instructional 16 Material Broadcast media Types and Theories of Mass Communication Broadcast media includes television and radio. It brought revolution in mass communication. The world of journalism got changed with the advent of radio and television. Not only in the area of journalism, but it has also revolutionized the NOTES arena of entertainment. Films are still the great source of entertainment for us. With the changing time, both radio and television changed their shape. Invent of private satellite channels transformed the way we used to see the world. Private radio channels are very popular among youth. Though they are getting stiff competition from digital media, but their popularity has not been lessen among public. The TV and Film industry is a place where creative people find great career opportunity. Transit media One of the underrated yet potential types of mass communication, outdoor media, corresponds to the dissemination of information as well as advertising through our outer environment such as billboards, posters, hoardings, banners, etc. The form of transit media is utilized for advertising products or services as well as spread social information and awareness to the general public. Transit Media is more inclined towards advertising through posters, banners, signs, and notices in means of transportations such as buses and metro rail, amongst others. Advertising plays a pivotal role in promoting transit media. Advertisers have full control of the message being sent to their audience. Digital media We are living in a digital age. This is the newest form of media which are gaining popularity every day. For last two decades, it has been the most influential in mass media tool. Especially, among new generation digital media is the most common for getting information as well as their daily dose of entertainment. Digital media provides the opportunity to connect with the world anytime, anywhere with the lightening speed. Social media is the part of digital media which has become an integral part of our life today. 2.3 MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION Communication as an activity appears to be very simple to explain at the very first instance, but when we explore it further the complexities of communication make it difficult for us to describe it in simpler terms. There have been many models that explain the various aspects related to communication. In a simple sense, a model is any representation of a theory, idea or concept that takes into account any studies that have already been done, and lays the foundation for further studies on Self-Instructional Material 17 Types and Theories of the subject. According to C. David Mortensen, author of Communication: The Mass Communication Study of Human Communication: In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation of an object or event in idealized and abstract form. Models are somewhat NOTES arbitrary by their nature. The act of abstracting eliminates certain details to focus on essential factors … The key to the usefulness of a model is the degree to which it conforms–in point-by-point correspondence – to the underlying determinants of communicative behaviour. The models of communication help us to understand the process of communication where the factors of communications are shown in a particular order and relations. In this section, we would look at various models of communication suggested by different scholars from time to time. It is worth mentioning here that we find two distinct types of models of communication, i.e., linear and non-linear. The model suggested by Shannon and Weaver is the first model of communication, though it was drawn by them to explain the working of telephones. Linear models of communication are a one way model to communicate with others. It involves sending a message to the receiver. It does not take the feedback of the receiver into account. In a linear model, the beginning and end of the communication process are clearly defined. The linear models see communication as the transmission of message and consequently raise the issue of effect rather than meaning. A situation of communication gap can only occur if we look at communication as a process of the transmission of message. Non-linear model of communication is a two way model of communication that takes the response or feedback of the receiver of the message into account. Another name of this kind of model is circular or interactional model. 2.3.1 Shannon and Weaver’s Model (1948) Claude Elwood Shannon published a paper in two parts, ‘A Mathematical Theory of Communication’, in 1948. In this paper, he developed the concept of information entropy, which worked as a measure for the uncertainty in a message. He was essentially inventing something else that later on became the dominant form of ‘information theory’. Warren Weaver afterwards made his theory available to people in simpler versions and was subsequently used by scholars widely in social sciences. Many years later the same theory was published in a book co-authored by Weaver. Hence the model was named as Shannon and Weaver model by social scientists though it appeared for the first time in the original paper of Claude Shannon in 1948. Figure 2.1 presents the basic elements contained in this model. Self-Instructional 18 Material  Information Types and Theories of Source Transmitter Receiver Destination Mass Communication Signal Received Signal Message Message NOTES Noise Source Fig. 2.1 Schematic Diagram of a General Communication System The model when used in communication studies would mean that the communication begins with the information source or sender who creates a message. This message is then transmitted along a channel. The role of transmitter is to convert the messages into signals that are capable of being transmitted through a channel. The signals so received are then reconverted to the original message by the receiver so as to reach the destination. Shannon in this model very significantly discusses the role of noise. The noise in his model refers to disturbances in the channel that may interfere with the signals and may produce the signals that were not intended. Shannon also elaborates on the role of redundancy and entropy as the major concepts of communication because they help in overcoming the disturbances caused by the channels. In his paper, Shannon discusses the terms entropy and redundancy in the following words: The ratio of the entropy of a source to the maximum value it could have while still restricted to the same symbols will be called its relative entropy. This is the maximum compression possible when we encode into the same alphabet. One minus the relative entropy is the redundancy. The redundancy of ordinary English, not considering statistical structure over greater distances than about eight letters, is roughly 50%. This means that when we write English half of what we write is determined by the structure of the language and half is chosen freely. The model of Shannon and Weaver is interpreted a bit differently by scholars of communication studies with social science background. It is for the same reason that the model of David Barlow becomes important where the mathematical technicalities of Shannon’s models were reinterpreted for human communication process. 2.3.2 Harold Lasswell’s Model (1948) Harold Dwight Lasswell (1902–1978) was a leading American political scientist and communications theorist. He was the Chief of the Experimental Division for Self-Instructional Material 19 Types and Theories of the Study of War Time Communications at the Library of Congress during the Mass Communication Second World War. He analysed Nazi propaganda films to identify mechanisms of persuasion used to secure the acquiescence and support of the German populace for Hitler. He gave verbal models of communication and politics in the same year NOTES when Shannon wrote his paper on mathematical theory. His model of communication is in the shape of a question containing many more questions: Who says What to Whom in What Channel with What effect? This linear model enumerates main variables involved in the process of communication. The ‘Who’ refers to the identification of the source and ‘What’ refers to the analysis of the content of the message. The choice of channel is denoted by the question ‘What channel’ and the characteristics of the audience by the question ‘Whom’. The main thing about this model is that it makes the end result of communication as the most important aspect of the whole process, when Lasswell asks ‘What effect?’ In a way, this model of communication appears to be influenced to a large extent by the behaviourism which was the newly developing trend in America those days. Behaviourism is a school of psychology that supports that behaviours can be influenced by conditioning. Laswell’s model takes the psychological conditioning of individuals and society into account. His model of communication can also be described as the psycho-sociological model of communication because it deals with the psychological and sociological aspects of communication. It considers what effects communication has on the recipient(s) of the message, and so it enters the domain of psychology as well as sociology. 2.3.3 David Berlo’s Model (1960) David Berlo’s model is popularly known as SMCR model. As has been said earlier, it is the socio-cultural extension of the mathematical model of communication given by Shannon and Weaver. Berlo says that the source and destination, i.e., the speaker and listener should share certain elements in order to achieve successful communication. The elements that they should share are described as communication skill, attitudes, knowledge, social system and culture. Similarly, he has also found more elements in ‘message’ and ‘channel’. The elements of message are content, element, structure, treatment and code. Further, the elements within ‘channel’ have been seen as the five sense perceptions, i.e., seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting. Berlo has also described each element of SMCR in great detail. The S in the model stands for source which may be oral, written, electronic or even symbolic. The M denotes the message that is transmitted and it implies the dissemination of ideas. The C indicates the channel through which Self-Instructional 20 Material communication is affected. Since the receivers are the one towards whom the Types and Theories of Mass Communication communication process is directed, so, they are denoted by R in the model. S SOURCE M MESSAGE C CHANNEL R RECEIVER NOTES communication seeing communication skills skills attitudes elements structure hearing attitudes c t t knowledge o r n touching knowledge n e e a m t t smelling social system e social system n culture t tasting culture Fig. 2.2 David Berlo’s Model of Communication (1960) 2.3.4 Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model (1953) Theodore M. Newcomb was an American social psychologist who carried out work in the area of interpersonal attraction. Newcomb’s model is unique in the sense that unlike other models he has given a triangular one which tries to explain the role of communication in a society. C (social environment) A B (Communicator) (receiver) Fig. 2.3 Newcomb’s Model (1953) The three nodes of the triangle A, B, C represent communicator, receiver and their social environment, respectively. According to him, the ABC elements form a system where there is a relationship of interdependence between the three. It means that if A changes, B and C would also have to change. In case A changes its relationship with C, then B will have to change its relationship with C or A as Self-Instructional Material 21 Types and Theories of well. The corresponding changes will maintain the equilibrium within the system. C Mass Communication here denotes social environment which is both common to A and B. Communication takes place between the two in a symmetrical manner because they are both oriented towards C. Communication supports this structure and relationship, and NOTES so, if there is a change or adjustment in relationship between A and B, a symmetry can be created without disturbing the communication equilibrium. Let us take the example of an election where A is a political party, B is the people and C is the election itself. A and B need to relate with each other in the context of election. This relation or connectivity is achieved by both with the help of various kinds of media and the result of elections would depend on how much A has been able to influence B. If the communication is successful the result of the election would be in the favour of A or else they would go against A. In either case, the relationship between A and B would change because the environment C has changed in a definitive manner. In a way, this model can be compared with the sociological theory of the state of equilibrium. It is a model which underlines the significance of communication in an era of information where people believe in the power of knowledge and where the political parties, governments and the people depend heavily on news and information in order to provide or get good and effective governance. This good governance requires democratization of public policy which cannot be achieved without intense communication. 2.3.5 Charles E. Osgood’s Model (1954) Charles Egerton Osgood was an American psychologist who is known for his contribution of developing a technique of measuring the connotative meaning of concepts, known as the semantic differential. He has also contributed insights into the area of psycholinguistics. Charles E. In fact, Charles Osgood is the first person to underline the two-way nature of communication which makes it a very good model to understand the actual process of interpersonal communication. Osgood has also talked about one-to-many and many-to-one systems of communication while elaborating his model. Osgood made a new beginning in communication models by suggesting the first circular model as it does not look at communication as a linear process moving from point A to point B. Communication is a dynamic process for him which can begin with any stimulus received by the source or receiver. His model shows the significance of both the source and receiver as the participants in a communicative situation. In his model, both the ends have the capability of encoding, decoding and interpreting the messages. Self-Instructional 22 Material  Types and Theories of Mass Communication Encoder M Encoder Interpreter Interpreter NOTES Decoder M Decoder Source Receivers Fig. 2.4 Osgood’s Communication Model Writing about his model in his book the measurement of meaning, Osgood says: …we have communication whenever one system, a source, influences the state or actions of another system, the destination or receiver, by selecting among the alternative signals that can be carried in the channel connecting them. In dealing with human communication systems we usually refer to signal sets as messages; and these are most often, though not necessarily, language messages.…Also in dealing with human communication, it is necessary to further analyze both source and receiver into integrated subsystem. The individual human communicator is equipped both to receive and transmit messages more-or-less simultaneously–indeed, he is regularly the receiver of the message he himself produces, via feedback mechanism. 2.3.6 George Gerbner’s Model (1956) Another linear model of communication proposed by George Gerbner, former Professor and Head of the Annenberg School of Communication in the University of Pennsylvania, tries to take the best of all the earlier models that judge communication as the transmission of message. His model, in fact, tries to improve upon the earlier models. The unique feature of this model is that it relates the message with the reality and thereby raises the question of perception and meaning. Gerbner’s model has two dimensions and three stages. The perceptual or receptive and the communicative and means of control are the two dimensions and the vertical, horizontal and then vertical again are the three stages in this model. The elements used in Gerbner’s model are given in the figure below (Figure 2.5). In order to explain, this model we will discuss it thread bare from first stage to the last stage. To begin with, the first stage called Horizontal Dimension, one has to start from the event E (external reality) as perceived by M (the human being or the machine such as a camera or a microphone). M then selects E according to his perception of the event. As human perception is a very complex phenomenon, it involves a series of interaction and negotiation. This is the complete process of Self-Instructional Material 23 Types and Theories of arriving at some perception of the event by matching the external stimuli with the Mass Communication internal pattern of thought or concept. The vertical dimension is the second stage where the perceived reality is articulated with the help of a mechanism that converts E into signals that are capable NOTES of being transmitted along a channel. Here the E is converted into SE which we normally call as message. In this stage, it becomes necessary to select the appropriate means or the medium of communication. Gerbner is actually illustrating the notion of access to media at this point. Let us take the example of television as media to understand the question of access. Television is generally considered as the elitist media. M E Selection context E1 Communicating dimension event availability percept Means and control Access to channels Perceptual dimension Media control M2 SE1 SE1 Selection context Percept of form content availability statement about event Fig. 2.5 Gerbner’s Model The third stage of this process is where the message reaches its destination. This again has the horizontal dimension where M2 is the signal or statement SE about the event E. Here the meaning of the message is not contained in the message itself, but it is arrived at through interaction and negotiation that takes place between the message and the receiver. Gerbner introduces here the concept of culture and says that the receiver derives the meaning of SE on the basis of his culture or sub- culture which again requires the interactions and/or negotiations between M2 and SE resulting in the generation of meaning of SE. For example, there is a witness (M) to a case (E). He is bound to be affected by his attitude, behaviour, perception, and so, his statement is converted into SE. His mode of communication is through written or oral form. This SE is taken up by the media house that converts it into a news report (M2). The readers of the news at this point form their opinions based on their own cultural aspects and orientations. Thus, meaning is generated in this way. Self-Instructional 24 Material  This model brings forth two important concepts of access and availability. Types and Theories of Mass Communication As we have described earlier, the selection of reality in television is in the control of the persons who control that media. It is for the same reason that the trade unions across the world accuse the owners of the media and the middle class intellectuals of misrepresenting the workers agitation in particular and the industrial NOTES news in general. Hence, access to media is a means of exerting power and social control. At horizontal dimension, availability does something almost same as what access does to the reality in vertical dimension. If selectivity tries to interpret the reality in terms of a given perspective, then the availability helps to determine what is actually perceived. At this level, the receiver of the message uses his own selectivity that is the end result of his socio-cultural environment. It is amply clear by the fact that the working class is able to understand the bias and misrepresentation of reality portrayed by the mainstream media because of the differences in the sub-cultures of the encoder and the decoder. Revised model George Gerbner later presented a modified version of his model which includes human and mechanical agents involved in the process. His later works like his studies of violence on television suggests that he was aware of certain deficiencies in his model, but the significance of his work lies in the fact that he has tried to synchronize the process and semiotic school of studies in his model. Later, Gerbner adopted a new approach to the study of mass communication, focussing on the process of mass communication itself. Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, and Signorielli asserted that television is the new form that disseminates new images and messages in the world. It determines the new social trends, and has replaced other forms of media, thus creating a new symbolic environment. It affects the thinking of the people, but Gerbner also argues that the effects of television are limited. 2.3.7 Wilbur Schramm’s Model (1971) Wilbur Schramm was one among the leading experts in the field of communication studies. He has very effectively tried to explain the process of communication in its widest sense from intrapersonal to mass communication. He has improvised the model of Shannon and Weaver and has also made Osgood’s model more effective by introducing the notion of feedback. The stress on feedback and noise as the essential components of communication process is an improvement upon Osgood’s concept of the source and receivers both possessing the encoding, interpreting and decoding capabilities. The feedback becomes a very important factor for the two-way communication between two people where any further possibility of sender’s encoding of another message depends upon the constant feedback in terms of the response. Hence, a dialogue is a communication where two people talking to each other become the sender and receiver at the same time. Schramm also interpreted feedback in another way where it means that the encoder gets the response from Self-Instructional Material 25 Types and Theories of his/her own message. We always hear our own voice while speaking and read our Mass Communication own writings before they are heard or read by others. The process of correcting the pronunciation and spelling are the result of the feedback mechanism between the encoding and the message. In this sense, the sender alone is having both functions NOTES of encoding and decoding for his/her own message. Encoder Interpreter Message Feedback Decoder Fig. 2.6 Schramm’s Communication Model Schramm then brings the notion of field of experience as a significant factor of communication. The large part of the field of experience of the people is idiosyncratic or private. However, the medium and a part of the field of experience should be shared by the individual, without which communication cannot take place. Field of experience Field of experience Source Encoder Signal Decoder Destination Fig. 2.7 Field of Experience in Communication He also discusses the role of frame of reference for the people participating in communicative situation. The frame of reference is the total sociological contest in which the communication takes place and where the people relates to the messages on the basis of their own values, needs and the social imperatives and constraints imposed on individuals. 2.3.8 Westley and MacLean’s Model (1957) Bruce H. Westley and M.S. MacLean gave an improvised and extended version of Newcomb’s model. If Newcomb’s model was for communication in general then this model is specifically adapted and designed for understanding the role of mass media in communication. Westley and MacLean have added one more element of editorial-communicating function to the triangular model of sender, receiver and