Topical Study Guide for Exam #2 History of Psychology PDF

Topical Study Guide for Exam #2 History of Psychology Gestalt Psychology Where was Gestalt psychology founded? It was found in Germany When was Gestalt psychology created? What historical events happened around the time Gestalt psychology was created?...

Topical Study Guide for Exam #2 History of Psychology Gestalt Psychology Where was Gestalt psychology founded? It was found in Germany When was Gestalt psychology created? What historical events happened around the time Gestalt psychology was created? The stock market crash of 1929 hit Germany hard, and political factions developed in Germany. ○ During this time Adolph Hitler and the Nazi party grew quickly. Jews and Jewish scientists, such as Albert Einstein were targeted by Nazis, and many left for the United States. German Psychology and Science up to 1933 was the best in the world and now ceased to exist. Why was Gestalt psychology not developed to the degree it might have been? Gestalt psychology was not developed to the degree it might have been due to Hitler coming to power and the Nazis. German Gestalt psychology developed around the same time American behaviorism and neobehaviorism developed. Gestalt psychologists fled Germany for the United States. Behaviorists in the United States did not welcome the Gestalt psychologist's ideas. Explain what it meant by “the parts create the whole.” Gestalt is a melody; all the notes together in continuity create the melody. A melody is part of the whole piece of music. ○ Gestalt is the many parts that create the whole. ○ Gestalt is ‘cause and effect’: the musical notes create a melody Gestalt psychology focuses on the ways the mind organizes experiences and perceptions into organized wholes that are more than the sum of their separate parts. The closest English equivalent to the German word Gestalt is “form” What did Gestalt psychologists study to come up with their ideas? Gestalt psychologists studied the perception of visual, auditory, and tactual (interpreting incoming information), learning (animal and human), thinking, memory (reviewing old information), and social psychology Believed in perception (stars in the sky) Good Gestalt → closure 19th – 20th Century Who were the scholars?  Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) ○ Lifestyle Born in Prague capital of the Czech Republic of Jewish and German descent. Father ran a successful business college in Prague Studied law at the University of Prague, transferring to Philosophy and Psychology. Completed Ph.D. at the University of Würzburg, Germany FUN FACT: (1895: X-rays were developed here by Laurette Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen) Not able to teach or supervise students until he completed another thesis He moved to Vienna, Austria to study brain lesions and Aphasia → leading him to his work on Gestalt Psychology. Talented Musician! Brought music into his classes to demonstrate Gestalt principles. ○ Discoveries Phi Phenomenon: research on motion Defined: The movement of the place/spot between 2 stimuli when the stimuli were presented nearly simultaneously Had an inspiration while waiting for a train to take him on summer vacation. He abandoned his vacation to conduct research at the University of Frankfurt with the assistance of two younger colleagues Wertheimer’s inspiration was to study the optical illusion of apparent movement: the perception of continuous motion that occurs when observing a succession of slightly varying still images Wertheimer went on to show that an observer, presented with randomly distributed examples of real movement and comparable apparent movement, could not distinguish one type from the other. When we observe actual movement, light images literally sweep across our retinas, falling on all the receptor cells lying in their path. With the phi phenomenon, only the retinal receptors lying at the beginning and at the end of the “sweep” become physically illuminated. → Some of the processes responsible for the perception of movement must take place at a deeper neurological level. Observed a Zoetrope or stroboscope → German toy Created a Tachistoscope Perception: Proximity, Closure, Similarity, and Continuity  Human perceptual processes impose their own order and dynamic organization on the individual components or “elements” of physical sensation. They emphasized how the mind tends to organize the elements of experience into wholes, whose significance is much greater than that of their summed individual part “There are wholes, the behavior of which is not determined by that of their individual elements, but where the part processes themselves are determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole. Gestalt theory hopes to determine the nature of such wholes Gestalt psychologists started with the wholes themselves and then tried to describe the functions of the parts within those wholes. Gestalt laws of perceptual organization: EX: The figure-ground principle ○ The Figure is the whole entity that is consciously observed, and the ground is the necessary backdrop against which the figure is defined. According to the Gestalt concept, a figure cannot exist without ground ○ Figure and ground can never both be in consciousness at the same time Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) ○ Born in Reval, Estonia (modern Tallinn)  ○NOT JEWISH ○His father ran a German school. ○Returned to Germany when he was 6. ○He attended Tubingen, Bonn, & Berlin Universities. ○Studying under famous physicist Max Planck. ○Ph.D. from the University of Berlin. ○Taught at the University of Frankfurt and participated in Wertheimer’s phi phenomenon study ○ Investigated problem-solving and general intelligence of chimpanzees in Tenerife, Spain off the coast of Africa. (1913-1917); during World War I. ○ Fun Fact: Some said he was a spy due to how long he studied the chimps and chickens ○ Discoveries Interested in Thorndike's work → Animals learn from trial and error → Kohler disagreed Chimpanzees could reason to solve a problem – use insight to come to an answer. WATCH VIDEO (Bananas and chimpanzees) Name of chimpanzee: Sultan Kohler explained the findings in Gestalt terms, stating the animals understood relationships and could reason Size and color Animals have cognitive abilities Understood relationships and could reason Insight learning: The restructuring of a problem. Where the solution appears after a period of thought Chimps reorganized the problem cognitively. The chimps were not responding to the stimulus (banana) but were responding to the gestalt as a whole. (solution) Transposition: He also worked with chickens → COLOR (shade) He also worked with chimpanzees → SIZE Animals can understand relationships between color or size, by choosing the next size or shade of color Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) ○ He was Jewish, born and educated in Berlin, Germany. ○ Influenced by his maternal uncle, a biologist, to pursue science. ○ 1903 attended Edinburgh University, Scotland for 1 year. ○ Completed Ph.D. in psychology at the University of Berlin in 1908.  Interest in Gestalt developed after participating in Wertheimer’s phi phenomenon study while at the University of Berlin ○ Due to the Nazi administration, he fled Berlin, moving to Smith College, MA. ○ Koffka died Died at 55 in Northampton, Massachusetts, from coronary thrombosis. → IMPORTANT ○ Discoveries Veridical perception Objects seen in the environment will have relatively consistent characteristics such as size and color Color blindness Books Koffka wrote: The Growth of the Mind: An Introduction to Child Psychology, book published in 1924 ○ Gestalt principles to prevent an innovative way of childhood phenomenon (positive outlook) Principals of Gestalt Psychology, a book published in 1935 continues to promote Gestalt Psychology today. ○ Comprehensive guide to gestalt psychology Applied psychology Research about perception, memory, and learning Gestalt Maximum: “the whole is something else than the of its parts” (Koffka) 1935, p. 176) Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) ○ Born in the village of Moglino in Prussia, province of Posen, which is now in Poland. ○ Known to have a temper ○ Grew up above the family store. Parents also had a farm. ○ In 1905, at 15 Lewin and his family moved to Berlin. He studied at Kaiser Augusta Gymnasium, Berlin. ○ In Munich at the University of Freiburg, he studied medicine and Biology. ○ Enlisted & fought in World War I, wounded & recovered returning to psychology. ○ Faculty at the University of Berlin, 1910, engaged in Gestalt psychology. ○ Visiting scholar at Stanford, CA. ○ Nazis came to power & he never returned to Germany. ○ Social Psychologist, at Cornell, then transferred to Faculty at the University of Iowa ○ Discoveries Adapted field theory and applied it to personality. Finding: behavior is a function of a person & environment (Nature & Nurture).  Investigated Group dynamics and the impact on the individual. Found that group dynamics alter the individual’s behavior and their constituents Researched individual and environmental effects. Expanded on gestalt psychology and applied them to human behavior. First psychologist to systematically test human behavior and group dynamics, influencing experimental, social, organizational, and personality psychology. Life space: represents a person's unique experience and reality. The life space includes one’s physical and social environments, as they are perceived, as well as the person’s constantly changing motives and actions, or locomotion within the life space. Topological Psychology: examines interactions between the environment and the individual. Bluma Zeigarnik (1901-1988) ○ Born in Prienai, Lithuania to Russian-speaking parents of the Jewish faith. ○ Completed undergraduate and Ph.D. at the University of Berlin in 1927. She married and had 2 children ○ Worked with Kurt Lewin at the University of Berlin. ○ In 1931 she moved to the Institute of Higher Nervous Activity in Russia and worked with Lev Vygotsky (a renowned psychologist in Cognition and Learning). ○ Later became Faculty at Moscow State University, 1949-1988 ○ Received the Lewin Reward ○ Discoveries Worked closely with Lewin at the University of Berlin, Germany on Theories of Gestalt Psychology. “Zeigarnik Effect”: Observed that interrupted memory was easier to recall, quickly, and with less effort compared to a recalled event. Waiters at restaurants bill unpaid (remembered more) vs bill paid(remembered less) Connected Memory to Gestalt Psychology. Zeigarnik’s work proved the Gestalt effect of perception, resulting in the “Zeigarnik Effect”, the need for closure. Memory recall is stronger when a task is incomplete. Consider the ‘cliff-hanger’ in a book or TV show (example: Breaking Bad, Friends, The Office), etc Where: Germany 1900’s: Climate and Government Climate: The winter around 1940, was the worst in over 140 years. Bitter cold, snow, and frozen ground. Summer was warmer, reasonable, and similar to today's temperatures. Government in 1900’s: ○ 1871-1918 was the German Empire, starting with the “Iron Chancellor” STARTS with Otto von Bismarck was the Chancellor from 1862-1890 ○ Weimer Republic/German Reich 1918-1945 ○ ENDS with Nazi Germany with Adolf Hitler (1933-1945) ○ Federal Republic of Germany (East and West) 1949- PRESENT. Economy ○ 1900’ the largest economy in Europe, and during WWII. Post WWII the economy was destroyed. Russians had taken all their machinery for the production of steel etc. Jobs ○ Agriculture, tradesmen, craftsmen, merchants, and machine workers. ○ Post WWII joblessness increased. The Marshall Plan helped bring in jobs and production in the 1950s Know the contributions of each psychologist in this era. ○ Perception (Wertheimer). Phi phenomenon (Wertheimer) Figure Ground perception(Wertheimer) Gestalt principles of perception ○ Animals have cognitive abilities and can learn (Kohler). Insight learning and transposition are Gestalt principles used in psychology and life today (Kohler). ○ Group and individual dynamics (Koffka) Veridical perception (Koffka) ○ Influenced American psychological ideas (Lewin). Lewin extended Gestalt into social psychology and personality. Life space (Lewin) Topological Psychology (Lewin) ○ “Zeigarnik Effect”: Observed that interrupted memory was easier to recall, quickly, and with less effort compared to a recalled event. (Zeigarnik) Connected Memory to Gestalt Psychology: Memory recall is stronger when a task is incomplete. Memory and Gestalt Psychology (Zeigarnik) Understand the connections between memory to Gestalt psychology. Memory recall is stronger when a task is incomplete → In parts not whole Understand how Gestalt psychology is used today (i.e., modern advertising, fashion, etc.) Gestalt perceptual organization is used in User Interface (UI) on websites and Apps (Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka, & Zeigarnik). ○ Jigsaw Puzzles ADVERTISITNG: Gestalt Psychology has influenced media, advertising, books, television, and music – the need to fill in the gap or finish the ‘cliff hanger’ (“Zeigarnik Effect”). ○ Our memory retains the information until we complete the perception, weather it is visual, hearing, or touch (“Zeigarnik Effect”). Consider this TV advertisement for Salem Cigarettes, there is a strong desire to finish the phrase after the short musical break in the jingle WATCH VIDEO. ART & FASHION: Wertheimer and Picasso were contemporaries and focused on the same perceptual perspective. ○ Camouflage for military Experimental Psychology 19th Century Who were the scholars? (Wundt) Wilhelm Wundt (1852-1920) ○ German physiologist, philosopher, psychologist and professor ○ Discoveries Wundt established that psychology fell between physical science and social science – utilizing research methods found in physical science and engaging them to answer psychological science questions. Published his 4th textbook in 1862, Textbook of Human Physiology. Published in several languages and Wundt was recognized with respect Subfields identified: sensory psychophysics, personal equation and brain localization. Conciousness and the human mind: Consciousness of the human mind was established as real, natural, and approachable. Focused on the consciousness not behavior – this comes later in history of psychology. Psychology is a perspective on consciousness that could be tested, similar to biology that experiments could be conducted on. Another part of psychology was the folklore: language, myth, & customs, that could not be tested by experiments.  At University of Leipzig, Wundt created the first laboratory for psychological science. Reaction time experiments conducted in 1879 How quickly u hit the “buzzer” (just an example; not actual) Wundt’s principle of actuality: consciousness is a process; it was an ever changing but continuous flow Where did they live? Prussia, Germany What was their lifestyle like? Climate: Warm summers with cold winters. With the end of the Little Ice Age in 1850, winter weather was warmer than previously. Government: 1. Confederation of the Rhine ruled 1st by Napoleon I (1806-1908); several others ruled in between, ended with 2. “Iron Chancellor” Otto von Bismarck ruled Prussia, and consolidated Germany (1862 to 1890). German Economy: Banks formed cartels, smaller banks across the country supporting the economy. Jobs: bankers supporting crafts and trades, fewer jobless individuals with the rise of the industrial nation. Activities: Private recreation typically included spectator amusements and sports (especially soccer/football), automobile excursions, the pursuit of hobbies, visits with friends and family, and the long-favored German pastime of walking or hiking. What did they contribute to psychology today? Had the first lab and used equipment to study reaction times. First father of modern psychology. Wundt distinguished psychology as a science from philosophy and biology, Was the first person ever to call himself a psychologist. Educated over 200 PhD students who went on to share his ideas of experimental psychology in a laboratory environment. One of them being James Cattell a pioneering American psychologist who continued reaction time studies, developing the theory of personality Established Experimental Psychology as a discipline of Psychology Established first psychology laboratory, where experiments could be conducted with apparatus and methods, such as used by von Helmholtz. Identified Social Psychology. Identified automaticity – early in learning we pay more attention, such as in learning to drive. Later we can multitask while driving, as the behavior is automatic. Influenced an abundance of future psychology researchers going on to define the field of psychology. Wundt’s personal history (e.g., Where did he live? Where did he study?)  Born in Manheim, Germany, near the French border, but grew up in Hildesheim, Germany in Lower Saxony. Father was a Lutheran pastor, who died when Wundt was 14. He did not thrive at the Gymnasium(high school) and was taught by a tutor. He moved to Heidelberg to live with his Uncle, he became academically focused. Won a prize at Heidelberg University for his research → Graduated at 19 Studied medicine at the University of Tubingen, where his uncle was a professor He worked with Johannes Muller in Berlin. His Uncle returned to Heidelberg, and he followed, working under von Helmholtz for 5 years, he was assigned to teach laboratory classes → never connected with Helmholtz. In 1859 he taught an anthropology course, later known as Social Psychology (the focus of the last 10 years of his life) His work was influenced by Fechner. He conducted experiments on himself when necessary ○ Tried different medicines on himself to see the side effects!!! Understand how Wundt distinguished psychology as a science. He made this distinction by developing experimental methods and focusing on the systematic study of consciousness Evolutionary Psychology: Charles Darwin (1809-1882) What was the climate and government like in England circa 1809-1882? Climate: 1850 was the end of the little ice age. Winters warmed up and summers were reasonable again, about 60 degrees. Government in 1800’s: the United Kingdom (England, Ireland, Scotland, & Wales) during the Regency era was ruled by Prince George; later by Queen Victoria from 1830-1901. Also know about economy, activities, and jobs → Social Class was IMPORTANT in England Economy: ‘Britain's 'Golden Years’, an increase in national income. A time of industrialization. , especially in, along with exports to the empire and elsewhere enhanced the economy. Jobs: textiles makers, machinery, cloth weavers, tailors, exporters, sailors, child workers in factories. Women without family support became prostitutes. Activities: Circus, sports such as cricket, bicycling, and croquet. Religion and moral values were on the forefront of people's minds. Gentlemen and ladies, were on one side while the working poor on the other. What was Charles Darwin’s life like? He was born and grew up in Mount house, Shrewsbury, England He was the youngest of 6. His Mother died when he was 8 years old. He was to study medicine but preferred natural history. ○ His father sent him to Christ Church college in Cambridge after Charles's disengaged from his medical studies. His interest in beetles and butterflies were encouraged at Cambridge. After graduating from Cambridge, he was offered a position on the HMS Beagle, with Captain Fitzroy. ○ Galapagos Island Charles is intrigued to learn that the shells of giant tortoises vary subtly from island to island and notes differences between mockingbirds too Charles starts the huge task of organising his notes. As well as writing an account of the voyage, he keeps a notebook in which he speculates that “one species does change into another”. His ideas challenge Christian thinking, which states that everything in the world was made by God and does not evolve. Over the next 20 years, Charles develops his ideas on ‘natural selection’. He believes that the living things that survive long enough to pass on their characteristics to the next generation are those that adapt best to their environment This natural selection causes mutation - or variation - through the generations. He later terms this ‘evolution ○ 1839 he marries Emma Wedgewood; they had 10 children. He became a naturalist, geologist and biologist. The rest of Darwin’s life story you will learn from the videos, see slide 1. What were his contributions to psychology? Darwin’s theory of life provides a framework for all sciences, including psychology. Darwin’s theory resulted in evaluation of the consciousness, and the minds contribution to human adaptation and survival. → Evolutionary Psychology Influenced Developmental Psychology and the expression of emotion. Darwin’s theory encouraged his cousin Galton to evaluate and research individual differences. Book on the Origin of the species IMPORTANT ○ Charles's groundbreaking On the Origin of Species eventually hits the bookshelves in 1859. It divides the scientific community and causes an uproar among many Christians. In 1871, Charles expands his ideas in the descent of man, proving that humans are animals descended from apes. People make  fun of his theories -A famous drawing shows him with the body of a chimpanzee - but few disagree with him. Video # 2 The video "Charles Darwin and the Tree of Life" explores Darwin’s theory of evolution and its impact on our understanding of life on Earth. It covers how all species are connected through a common ancestry, supported by evidence from fossils, biology, and genetics. Sir David Attenborough highlights how Darwin's theory reshaped our perception of the natural world and the origins of species. The video also explains the significance of the Tree of Life metaphor in illustrating evolutionary relationships Tree of life metaphor ○ Symbolizes the idea that all living organisms are connected through evolution, sharing a common ancestor. Just as a tree has branches that extend from a single trunk, species diverge from common roots, branching out into various forms over time. The metaphor highlights the interconnectedness and diversity of life, where different species emerge, evolve, or become extinct, much like how some branches grow, while others die off in the tree. It emphasizes evolution as a continuous, dynamic process. Attenborough highlights the significance of natural selection in explaining how species adapt and evolve over time, stressing the enduring impact of Darwin’s work on science and our understanding of life. Individual Differences: Francis Galton (1822-1911) Francis Galton: (19th Century) Francis Galton was English and a cousin of Charles Darwin's ○ Discoveries Individual Differences Began investigating human individual differences He established an anthropometric laboratory (1884-1885) at the International Health Exhibit in London. ○ How much did they twitch or blink Over 12 months he collected data on 9,337 people. In 1888, a lab was created at the South Kensington Museum in London. ○ Tested mental power → INTELLIGENCE JUDGEMENT: Created a beauty map of Britain ranking London women being the most beautiful. → OFFENSIVE Physical Tests and Questionnaires  The Galton whistle was developed to test the perception of hearing as he believed that visual and hearing were linked to mental abilities. Discovered that with increased age people lost the ability to hear high tones. He discovered that fingerprints had individual characteristics and collected many. → INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Developed the first psychometric tests in 1887. He gathered data on sensory Galton Whistle and motor skills to measure intelligence ○ The aim was to understand psychological differences between people instead of focusing on individual trait Mental imagery, association tests, & statistics Galton asked scientists & non-scientists to recall mental imagery OR MEMORY of the breakfast table. ○ Result: Women were able to recall the breakfast table than scientists Galton stated that mental abilities, like intellect, were similarly distributed, on a curve. Identifying the Bell Curve. ○ Collected data on eminent families(father and sons) so intelligent, and successful, he knew. → Intelligence is hereditary “Hereditary Genius” which is very much in contrast to the 2015 findings of Carol Dweck Developed median and percentiles to express central tendencies, and to show variations in the distribution of scores Additional statics he introduced correlations, dispersion, and regression. Nature VS Nurture Nature vs. Nurture, was coined and defined by Mulcaster in 1582. Galton popularized the term and introduced it to psychology. Twin studies. ○ Identical VS Fraternal ○ Environmental influence Eugenics – genetic control. ○ Improving the human race through selective breeding.  ○ Convinced of the supreme importance of heredity, he envisaged a program of eugenics in which the most gifted young people would be identified by intelligence tests and encouraged to intermarry and have many children. ○ A monthly journal was published from 1908-1968. Why did it take that long to stop these ideas? ○ Penrose What was their lifestyle like? Born in Warwickshire, near Birmingham, England; North-West of London and the 2nd largest city in England. He came from a wealthy family. Galton was highly intelligent, with an IQ of 200. He could read and write as early as 2 ½ years old – could these facts be an exaggeration of his abilities? ○ Wrote a letter at 4 years of age! He attended a boarding school. At 16 he was a medical pupil at Birmingham General Hospital. ○ Medicine was not for him, he was squeamish. Graduated from Cambridge University with a general degree. He never held a faculty position. With a large inheritance, he was able to explore his interests. He published 2 books from his travels around the world. ○ “The Art of Travel” → first travel guide ever Went to Egypt to find the source of the Nile River Went to South Africa → meet Indigenous people → wrote things that made him feel superior “The Tropical South Africa” 1853 Returning to London he engaged with weather information. (his travel inspired this!) Inspired by his cousin Darwin’s theory. In midlife, Galton observed individual differences in biology, genetics, statistics, & psychology. Understand what England was like circa 1822-1911 (activities, government, etc.) Climate: 1850 was the end of the Little Ice Age. Winters warmed up and summers were reasonable again, about 60 degrees. Government in 1800’s: the United Kingdom (England, Ireland, Scotland, & Wales) during the Regency era was ruled by Prince George; later by Queen Victoria from 1830-1901 Economy: ‘Britain's 'Golden Years’, an increase in national income. A time of industrialization., especially in, along with exports to the empire and elsewhere enhanced the economy.  Jobs: textile makers, machinery, cloth weavers, tailors, exporters, sailors, child workers in factories. Women without family support became prostitutes. Activities: Circus, sports such as cricket, bicycling, and croquet. Religion and moral values were at the forefront of people's minds. Gentlemen and ladies were on one side while the working poor were on the other. → Part of the gentry! Involved with the elite! What did they contribute to psychology today? Value of studying individual differences. First psychometric lab. Identified the loss of high tones in hearing with age. Created psychometric tests in 1887. Word association and reaction time tests Mental imagery in individual differences. Invented the bell curve model. Statistical practices of measuring data (see slide 10). Twin Studies and Nature vs Nurture What type of lab did he establish? He established an anthropometric laboratory (1884-1885) at the International Health Exhibit in London. How much data did he get? Over 12 months he collected data on 9,337 people. Epigenetics the study of how environmental factors can impact gene expression, and how these changes can affect behavior and other traits In psychology, "epigenetics" refers to the study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression without changing the DNA sequence itself, essentially bridging the "nature vs. nurture" debate, and connects to Francis Galton's work by highlighting how environmental experiences can "mark" our genes, impacting traits and behaviors, which aligns with Galton's interest in the interplay between genetics and environment, particularly in relation to human abilities and characteristics What are twin studies? Why are they important? Twin studies are research investigations that compare the similarities between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to understand the relative contributions of genetics ("nature") and environment ("nurture") on various traits, with Francis Galton being credited as the pioneer for first using twins to study this concept by comparing their similarities and differences to assess the role of heredity and environment; essentially, by studying twins raised in different environments, researchers can see how much of a trait is due to genetics versus environmental factors. What is a psychometric test? A psychometric test is used to assess a candidate's cognitive ability or their personality traits.