Grammar Review PDF

**TOPIC TWO** **GRAMMAR REVIEW** **LEXICAL CATEGORY** Lexical category is the term used by linguistics in modern linguistics to refer to **word classes** traditionally known as **part of speech.** Linguistically words are classified into two main classes/ categories namely; - Major class or op...

**TOPIC TWO** **GRAMMAR REVIEW** **LEXICAL CATEGORY** Lexical category is the term used by linguistics in modern linguistics to refer to **word classes** traditionally known as **part of speech.** Linguistically words are classified into two main classes/ categories namely; - Major class or open class item which includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs - Minor class or closed system which includes pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections. In this topic also we will discuss the subordinations, and demonstratives which is part of closed system. a. **OPEN CLASS ITEM** 1. **Common nouns** 2. **Proper nouns** 3. **Concrete nouns** 4. **Abstract nouns** 5. **Collective nouns** The five types of nouns discussed above can be either ***countable*** or ***uncountable.*** Countable nouns are nouns that can be plural. For example, snakes, toads, chairs, cars, and handles. These nouns have singular and plural forms; observe these rules for forming plural. **The formation rule of plural nouns** **Singular** **Rule** **Plural** --------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------- lamp, table Add *-s* to most nouns lamps, tables inch, fox Add *-es* to nouns ending in *s, sh, ch, x,* or *z* *.* inches, foxes radio, stereo Add *-s* to most nouns that end in *o* radios, stereos echo, hero Add *-es* to a few nouns that end in *o* echoes, heroes melody, fly Change the *y* to an *i* and add *-es* to most nouns ending in *y.* melodies, flies monkey, day If a vowel comes before the *y,* add *-s* monkeys, days thief, half Change the *f* to a *v* and add *-es* to most nouns that end in *f* or *fe* thieves, halves roof, cuff Add *-s* to a few nouns that end in *f* or *fe* roofs, cuffs corn, tuna Some nouns keep the same spelling corn, tuna woman, foot The plural forms of some nouns are irregular women, feet Uncountable nouns are nouns that cannot be plural. For example, people, furniture, water, and anger. **Functions of nouns** - Form the subject of a verb in a sentence for example; **Ally** is writing a letter - Form an object of a verb in a sentence for example; Ally is writing **a letter** - Is a head in noun phrase for example; The handsome **boy** - Complement of linking verb for example; It is the best **book** - Is an object or compliment of a preposition for example; they called him **a chairperson** **Verbs** are words that express action or state of being. A verb is word used to say something about some person, place or things. It is one that carries information about the person, place or ideas. They show the action in the sentence. A verb is word or group of words that explains more about subjects, example; - The girl **wrote** a letter - She is **crying** - The students are **writing** There are **three** types of verbs: i. **Action verbs**, ii. **Linking verbs**, iii. **Helping verbs/auxiliary verbs**. **ACTION VERBS** Action verbs are words that express the action. It may be transitive verbs, or intransitive verbs. These are also known as lexical verbs or main verbs. i. **Transitive verbs** A transitive verb always has a noun that receives the action of the verb, - Musa **poured** the milk - Musa **kicked** the ball. - The cow **eats** grass The bolded verbs are transitive verbs. They take also object and compliment. Transitive verbs are sub divided into sub classes namely; - Monotransitive verb - Ditransitive verb, and - Complex transitive verb - She **cut** the cake - The cow **eat** grass - Musa **kicked** the ball - The teacher **writes** notes Ditransitive verbs are transitive verbs which take two objects. For example; - He **gave** him the money. **Him** is indirect object while **the money** is direct object. - He **bought** her wife a new car. **Her wife** is indirect object while **a new car** is direct object. - He **offered** her his commodities. **Her** indirect object while **his commodities** is direct object The bolded words are ditransitive verbs. Complex transitive verbs are the transitive verbs which can take either direct object, adverbial, or direct object and compliment of an object. For example; - I **gave** Suzi a gift, **Suzi** is a direct object, and **a gift** is compliment of object. - We **elected** Samia our president. **Samia** is a direct object and **our president** is compliment of object. The bolded words are complex transitive verbs. b. **intransitive verbs** A **linking verb** connects the subject of a sentence to a **noun** or **adjective** that renames or describes the subject. This noun or adjective is called the **subject complement**. Example: Amani became **a teacher**. The verb, *became*, links the subject, *Amani*, to its complement, *a teacher*. Mwajuma is **in love with Musa**. The verb, ***is*,** links the subject, *Mwajuma*, to the subject complement, *in love with Musa* (describing *Mwajuma*). The most common linking verb is the verb *to be* in all of its forms (*am*, *are*, *is*, *was*, *were,* etc.). This verb may also be used as a helping verb. *To become* and *to seem* are always linking verbs. ------------- --------- ---------- ----------- ---------- -- to taste to feel to look to remain to stay to continue to grow to prove to sound to smell ------------- --------- ---------- ----------- ---------- -- These words can be used as linking verbs, helping verbs as well as action verbs. **HELPING VERBS/ AUXILLIARY VERBS** **Helping verbs** are used before action or linking verbs to convey additional information regarding aspects of possibility. They do not make up verbs phrase on their own but must usually be accompany by the following main verb. The main verb with its accompanying helping verb is called a **verb phrase**. Examlpe; Malafyale **is** (helping verb) **going** (main verb) to school. Electricity **might** (helping verb) **be** (main verb) dangerous. These verbs some times are known as polarity or copula. Copula means link, therefore these Verbs sometimes are used as **linking verbs.** For example, the form "be" can be used as linking verb as well as an auxiliary verb. Helping/ auxiliary verbs are made up of; i. primary auxiliaries: ***be, have, do*** ii. modal auxiliaries: can***-could, may-might, shall- should, will-would, must-must, ought- ought*** i. **PRIMARY AUXILIARY** Primary auxiliary (be, have, do) are confined to; Base "do" **--s in present form** for example ***do***- ***does*** **-ing** **form** for example ***do*** --***doing*** **Past form** for example; ***do*** -- ***did*** **Present form** for example ***does***- ***does*** (third person singular) do -- do (1^st^ person plural, 2^nd^ person singular and plural, and 3^rd^ person plural) **Present continuous** for example ***do*** --***doing*** **Past form** for example; ***do*** -- ***did*** Base "have" **Present form** for example; have***, has*** **Past form** for example; ***had*** Base "be" **Present form** for example; ***is, are, am*** **Present continuous** for example; ***being*** **Past form** for example; ***was, were*** **Past participle** for example; **been** Note: "do" and "have" are also main verbs having the five forms **base** **Present** **past** **Past participle** ---------- ------------- --------------- ---------- --------------------- Have Have, has Having, \-\-- Had Had do Do/does did Done **MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS** They are not confined to --s, -ing form, -ed form or participle form. The main function of auxiliary verbs is to accompany the main verb to give different meaning. **Modal's express ability, obligation, permission, possibility, etc.** **Examples and the uses of modal auxiliary verbs** i. **CAN or COULD** - It shows the ability - It shows permission - Can I smoke in here.........am I allowed to smoke ii. **CAN** - It shows bility - It shows permission -- iii. **MAY** - It shows possibility - Permission.........He has permission to jump iv. **MIGHT** - It shows possibility v. **MUST** - It shows obligation......he has to jump - It shows opinion........that the person must be hungry (given the circumstances) vi. **OUGHT TO** - It shows a belief vii. **SHOULD** - It shows opinion viii. **WILL** - It shows a belief ix. **WOULD** - It shows a belief ***An adjective is a word used to modify or to describe, a noun or a pronoun. They tell what kind, which one, how many, and how much.*** ***Mainly we have five types of adjectives as explained below;*** 1. ***Adjective of quantity*** ***The adjective of quantity expresses the number of nouns. It tells us the number of nouns. It answers the question of how many/ how much.*** ***For example;*** ***Three houses, much water, much wine, many trees, much money, twenty students, little water, enough money.*** 2. ***Demonstrative adjectives*** ***Demonstrative adjective is the one that shows the noun it modifies whether it is singular or plural. It shows also the position of the noun whether it is near of far from the person who is speaking or writing and point out a fact about a noun. Demonstrative adjectives are formed by the demonstratives such as this, these, that, and those*** ***For example;*** ***Singular.........................................plural*** ***That black American......................Those black Americans (far)*** ***That policeman.............................Those three policemen (far)*** ***That thin dog................................Those thin dogs (far)*** ***This book....................................These books*** ***This red short................................These red shorts*** 3. ***Descriptive adjectives*** ***Descriptive adjectives describe nouns that refer to action or state. It answers the question of which one and what kind?*** ***For example;*** ***Care less, dangerous, sad, tall, black, white, red, big, small, long, short, fat, thin, true (true story), green, excite, and straight.*** 4. ***Possessive adjectives*** ***A possessive adjective is a one that expresses possession of a noun by someone or something. They are the same as possessive pronoun.*** ***For example;*** ***Singular.......................................plural*** ***My bag....................................................our bag*** ***Your car....................................................your car*** ***His house...................................................Their house*** ***Her pencil................................................ their pencil*** ***Its tail...................................................... their tail*** ***Its grass....................................................their grass*** 5. ***The adjective of quality*** ***The adjectives of quality describe the quality of an object. These can be formed in the following ways.*** ***From noun to adjectives;*** ***Noun...................................................Adjectives*** ***Skill......................................................skillful*** ***Gold.............................................golden*** ***Power.....................................................powerful*** ***Dirt........................................................dirty*** ***From verb to adjectives*** ***Verb......................................................\... Adjective*** ***Use............................................................useful*** ***Talk............................................................talkative*** ***Please.........................................................pleasant*** ***Care...........................................................careful*** ***Count.........................................................countable*** ***From other adjectives*** ***Adjective......................................................Adjective*** ***Just.............................................................justifiable*** ***Red.............................................................reddish*** ***White.........................................................whitish*** ***ADVERBS*** ***An adverb is a word which is used to modify an action verb, an adjective or another adverb. An Adverbs that modify an action verb tells when, how, how much, how often an action occurs, or gives degree. For example;*** - ***Some students arrived late*** ***Late tells when the action occurred*** - ***Other students come behind*** ***Behind tells where*** - ***They were doing the home work well or slowly*** ***Well or slowly tells how*** - ***They sometimes go to town*** ***Sometimes tells often*** ***TYPES OF ADVERBS*** 1. ***Adverbs of time*** ***An adverb of time is the one which tells when something is done or happen. It answers the question of when?*** Adverbs of time include **afterwards**, **already**, **always**, **immediately**, **last month**, **now**, **soon**, **then**, and **yesterday**. ***For example;*** - ***I will go in the afternoon*** - He taught us **a few months ago**. - **Last week**, we were stuck in the lift for an hour. - ***We arrived yesterday*** 2. ***Adverbs of place*** ***An adverb of place tells where the action takes place or where something is done or happens.*** We use it after the verb, object or at the end of a sentence. Adverbs of place include words such as **above**, **below**, **here**, **outside**, **over there**, **there**, **under**, **upstairs**. ***For example;*** - The child was knocked **over there** by a school bus. - The cat sat **below the table**. 3. ***Adverbs of manner*** ***Adverbs of manner tell how*** something is done or happens. Most adverbs of manner end in --ly such as **badly**, **happily**, **sadly**, **slowly**, **quickly**, and others that include **well**, **hard**, **fast**, etc. - The brothers were **badly** injured in the fight. - They had to act **fast** to save the others floating in the water. - She sang very **well**. 4. ***Adverbs of frequency*** ***Adverbs of frequency are the adverbs that tell how often*** something is done or happens. Words used as adverbs of frequency include **again**, **almost**, **always**, **ever**, **frequently**, **generally**, **hardly ever**, **nearly**, **nearly always**, **never**, **occasionally**, **often**, **rarely**, **seldom**, **sometimes**, **twice**, **usually**, and **weekly**. - They were **almost** fifty when they got married. - He hardly **ever** says something nice to his wife. - While overseas, he **frequently** phoned home. - She is not **nearly** always right although she thinks she is **always** right. - He complained that she **never** smiled back. - We only write to each other very **occasionally**. - Peter **seldom** reads the Bible. - **Sometimes** he stays late in the office to complete his work. - Our cat was bitten **twice** by the same dog. - The man **usually** proposes marriage. 5. ***Adverbs of degree***  An adverb of degree tells us the level or extent that something is done or happens. Words of adverb of degree are **almost**, **much**, **nearly**, **quite**, **really**, **so**, **too**, **very**, etc. - It was **too** dark for us to find our way out of the cave. - Her daughter is **quite** fat for her age. - The accident victim **nearly** died from his injuries. - After all these years, she is still feeling **very** sad about her father's death. - ***The majority has derivation suffix "ly" normally added at the adjectives.*** - ***They are mobile/ movable*** - ***The sometimes optional*** **Pronouns** What is a pronoun? *A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.* Examples: ***he, she, it, they, someone, who*** - ***Juma** is a clever boy.* (Juma is a noun) - ***He** is a clever boy.* (He is a pronoun) Do you see how the pronoun *he* took the place of the noun *Juma*? We can also put the noun and pronoun in the same sentence. - *Not only is Juma a mountain climber, but he is also a motivational speaker.* If we didn\'t have pronouns, we would have to write that sentence like this. - *Not only is Juma a clever boy, but Juma is also good player.* **Types of Pronouns** There are many different types of pronouns. Below you will find a short description and a few examples of each. 1. **Personal Pronouns** Here are the personal pronouns. *I, me, we, us, you, she, her, he, him, it, they, them* **Characteristics of personal pronoun** - **Tells Person** (Who is speaking?) - **Tells Number** (Is the pronoun singular or plural?) - **Tells Gender** (Is the pronoun masculine, feminine, or neuter?) For instance, *she* is third person (the person being spoken about), singular, feminine while *we* is first person (the people speaking), plural, neuter. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Personal Pronouns** | **Singular** | **Plural** | | | | | | These take the place | | | | of [common and proper | | | | nouns](http://www.eng | | | | lish-grammar-revoluti | | | | on.com/proper-nouns.h | | | | tml). | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **First Person**: The | I\ | we\ | | person or people | me | us | | speaking or writing | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Second Person**: | you | you | | The person or people | | | | being spoken or | | | | written to | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Third Person**: The | she, her\ | they\ | | person, people, or | he, him\ | them | | things being spoken | it | | | or written about | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ 2. [**Relative Pronouns**](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/relative-pronouns.html) **Look at the following sentence;** *This is the orange that I want to eat.* *That* refers to the noun *orange,* and it introduces the relative clause *that I want to eat.* Examples; that, which, who, whom, whose, whichever, whoever, whomever 3. **Demonstrative Pronouns** There are only four demonstrative pronouns! *this, that, these, those* We use these to point out particular people or things. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Demonstrative | **Singular** | **Plural** | | Pronouns** | | | | | | | | These represent a | | | | thing or things. | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Refers to things | this | these | | that are nearby** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Refers to things | that | those | | that are far away** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Sometimes, those words are used before nouns. In those cases, they are adjectives, not pronouns. (Remember, [adjectives](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/what-is-an-adjective.html) describe nouns.) For example; *bring me that book*. (Adjective) *Bring me that.* (Pronoun) 4. **Indefinite Pronouns** The prefix *in-* means *not*. [*In*definite pronouns](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/indefinite-pronouns.html) are *not* definite. We don\'t know whom or what these refer to! For example; *anyone, something, all, most, some* ***Someone** has stolen my pen.* (Who? We don\'t know.) ***Everyone** looked at me.* (Who exactly? We don\'t know.) When indefinite pronouns are used before nouns, they are actually acting as adjectives, not pronouns. ***Both** people laugh at me.* (adjective) ***Both** smiled at me.* (pronoun) +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | [**Indefinite | | | Pronouns**](http://www.english-gr | | | ammar-revolution.com/indefinite-p | | | ronouns.html) | | | | | | These refer to something that is | | | unspecified. | +===================================+===================================+ | **Singular** | anybody, anyone, anything, each, | | | either, everybody, everyone, | | | everything, neither, nobody, no | | | one, nothing, one, somebody, | | | someone, something | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Plural** | both, few, many, several | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Singular or Plural** | all, any, most, none, some | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ 5. [**Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns**](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/reflexive-pronouns.html) These two types of pronouns end in *-self* or *-selves*. *For example; himself, herself, myself, itself* Those words have different names depending on how they are being used. A [**reflexive** pronoun](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/reflexive-pronouns.html) is used to refer to the subject of the sentence. ***I** will go to the school **myself**.* (reflexive) An [**intensive** pronoun](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/reflexive-pronouns.html) is used to emphasize another noun. *He **himself** visited the school.* (intensive) She **herself** committed suicide [**Reflexive Pronouns**................................................\...\...\...\...\...\...\.....**Singular............Plural**](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/reflexive-pronouns.html)These end in *self* or *selves*. **First Person**: The person or people speaking or writing.....................................myself...............ourselves **Second Person**: The person or people being spoken or written to........................yourself........... yourselves **Third Person**: The person, people, or things being spoken or written about........himself herself, itself.............. themselves 6. **Interrogative Pronouns** These are pronouns that are found in [questions](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/interrogative-sentence.html). Another name for a question is an *interrogative sentence*. Interrogative pronouns often begin interrogative sentences. For example; *what, whom, whose, who, which* ***Who** stole a pen from her pocket?* ***Which** door should I use?* 7. [**Possessive Pronouns**](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/possessive-pronouns.html) [Possessive pronouns](http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/possessive-pronouns.html) show ownership. Another word for ownership is *possession*. *his, hers, your, theirs, mine* When possessive pronouns are used before nouns, they are actually being used as adjectives, not pronouns. For example; ***Our** family has vacation next week.* (adjective) *That car is **ours**.* (pronoun) This house is **mine** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | [**Possessive | **Singular** | **Plural** | | Pronouns**](http://ww | | | | w.english-grammar-rev | | | | olution.com/possessiv | | | | e-pronouns.html) | | | | | | | | These are used to | | | | show ownership. | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Used Before Nouns** | my\ | our\ | | These actually | your\ | your\ | | function as | his, her, its | their | | adjectives. Crazy! | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Used Alone** | mine\ | ours\ | | | yours\ | yours\ | | | his, hers | theirs | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ There some pronouns that can be used as a subject and some as an object. For example; Subject (singular). **I, you she, he, and it**. Subject (plural) **we, you, and they** **Objects**: direct objects, indirect objects, objects of prepositions. Singular.. **me, you, her, him and it** Plural..... **us, you, them** **FUNCTIONS OF PRONOUNS** Pronouns can do all of the things that nouns can do. Therefore some of the functions of the nouns are; - It can be a subject, - It can be a direct object, - It can be an indirect object, - It can be an object of the prepositions **INTERJECTIONS** Interjections are words that express the emotions or sentiments of the speaker or convey hesitation. They are usually followed by an exclamation mark or a comma. **Characteristics of interjections** - Interjections are words that express emotion. - They are followed by either an exclamation mark or a comma. - They do not have a grammatical place in the sentence. - They should not be used in academic writing, unless they are a part of a direct quote or otherwise. **Ah**! Are you Mohamed? Both **Ah** are interjections show the surprise. These are some interjections There are many different uses for various interjections; the following is a list of the common interjections you may hear around you in daily life - **Interjection** **Meaning** **Use** ------------------ ----------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- **Aah** Exclamation of fear Aah! That is alion! **Ahh** Realization or acceptance Ahh, now I see what you mean. **Aww** Something sweet or cute Aww! Wonderful sweet. **Bingo** Acknowledge something as right Bingo! That's exactly what we were looking for! **Eh** Question something So that was all she said, eh? **Eww** Something disgusting Eww! That movie was so gory. **Hmph** To indicate displeasure Hmph. I could do that for half the amount he charged. **Oh** I see/ I think Oh, it's been around a week since I saw her. **Oops** Making a mistake Oops! Sorry I didn't see those skates there. **Ouch** Exclamation of pain Ouch, that hurt! Stop pinching me! **Shh** An indication for silence Shh! The show is about to start. **Uh oh** Showing dismay Uh oh! The teacher's caught him. **Whew** Amazement and/or relief Whew! I can't believe we actually finished it all. **Wow** Expressing surprise or admiration Wow! That's really great news! **Yay/Yaay** Congratulatory exclamation I can't believe you're actually coming here! Yaay! **Yeah** Variant of 'yes' Yeah, I'd love some orange juice. **Yikes** For fear or concern (not serious) Yikes, my mother's home! **Yippee** Exclamation of celebration Yippee! We won, lets head to the bar. Some interjections are used to stall for time or indicate that the speaker is thinking of something. These interjections are also used when someone doesn't know what to say. The following is a list of these sounds or words; they are also called **Hesitation Devices -** **Interjection** **Meaning** **Use** ------------------ --------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------- **Uh** Indicates a pause/ need for more time Wait I know this... uh... is it Ruskin Bond? **Hmm** Thinking/Hesitating about something Hmm, I'm not sure this colour is the best for this room. **Er** Not knowing what to say I don't think...er... wait... let me call my boss. **Um** Pausing or being skeptical Not that I don't believe you but, um, you say it's a ghost? **PREPOSITIONS** Prepositions are words that show the relationships between groups of words. Prepositions are abstract words that have no concrete meaning. It acts as a glue that holds different components of a sentence together, helping to create context and meaning. There are different types of prepositions, and they can be used to indicate time, place, direction, and manner. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Always the prepositions are not placed at the end. A preposition is a connecting word that establishes a relationship between the parts of a sentence. **TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE** There are **five types of prepositions**: - - - - - 1. **Simple Prepositions;** these are short or little words that express relationships including those of space, time and degree. Some of them are such as at,by, for, from, in, of, off, out, on, with, through, till, up, down, to, after, over, under, round, past, since, via, per, and than. 2. **Double Prepositions;** these are prepositions which contain two words. They include the following to mention a few; out of, according to, from behind. From among, from under, from within, near to, next to, nearest to, opposite to, close to, inclusive of, exclusive of, instead of, in spite of, due to , owing to, as regards. For example; *The moon shone from behind the clouds, She took the book from under the pillow*. 3. **Compound Preposition;** this is formed by prefixing. Some include the following; beside, inside, outside, within, without, besides, upon, throughout, alongside, etc. 4. **Participial Prepositions;** these are present participles which are used as prepositions. Some of these are such as concerning, during, notwithstanding, pending, regarding, respecting, following, barring, including. For example; We stayed in Mombasa during summer. 5. **Phrase Prepositions;** these are groups of words used as prepositions. Some of them are such as: by the reason of, in accordance with, on behalf of, in favour of, instead of etc. **CONJUNCTIONS** Conjunctions are words used to join words, phrases and clauses, and show the relationship between ideas in the clause. For example, although, but, so, that, either-or, neither-nor etc. For example; I hate meat **but** I like its soup. **Types of conjunctions** There are two types of conjunctions which are **coordinators** and **subordinators.** 1. **Coordinators** i. The use of coordinator **and** to link sentences. Musa went to Mwanza. His wife went to Mbeya. - Musa went to Mwanza **and** his wife went to Mbeya. Juma was writing. His friend peter was playing. - Juma was writing **and** his friend peter was playing. - Dalali was reading the book **and** her sister was cooking food in the kitchen. ii. The use of coordinator **but** to link sentences. I hate meat. I like its soup. - I hate meat **but** I like its soup. He worked very hard. He got poor results. - He worked very hard **but** he got poor results. She came early. She missed the food - She came early **but** she missed the food He was lazy. He passed his examination - He was lazy **but** he passed his examination 2. **Subordinators** Subordinators conjunction introduces a subordinating clause. A subordinating clause is the one that cannot stand alone. A subordinating conjunction also connects a subordinate clause to an independent clause to form a complex sentence. For example; It was raining. We watched the match - **Although** it was raining, we watched the match **Types of subordinators** Subordinators can be grouped into **three** types i. **Simple subordinating conjunctions** These are subordinators consisting of one word. For example although, since, that, unless, until, while, whereas, whereby, whereupon, because, and however. - **Although** it was raining, we watched the match - **Since** it was raining, we didn't watch the match ii. **Complex subordinating conjunctions** These are subordinators consisting of more than one word. In order that, in order to, in that, such that, except that, assuming that, so that, as far as, as soon as, so long as, in case, no sooner than e.t.c - We came to the college in order to learn. - We came to the college so that we may learn iii. **Correlative subordinating conjunctions** These are subordinators consisting of two or more words that function together. They consist of pairs. For example; as-as, if-then, as-so, no sooner-than, whether-or, scarcely-when, both-and, hardly-when/than, either-or, neither-nor, and not only- but also. Examples; John was not poor. Mashaka was not poor too. - Neither John nor Mashaka was poor. Imani is not lazy. Ashura is not lazy. - Neither Imani nor Ashura is lazy. I am not intelligent. I am not dull. - I am neither intelligent nor dull The elephant is the largest animal living on the land. The lion is the largest animal living on the land. - Either the elephant or the lion is the largest animal living on the land I can speak English. I can speak Kiswahili. - I can speak either English or Kiswahili I would like to live in big city like Dare es salaam. I would like also to live in cold town like Mbeya. - I would like to live in either a big city like Dar es Salaam or in a cold town like Mbeya **TENSES** What is a tense? A tense is any of the forms of the verb which distinguish when an action or state of being occurs or exist. The basic tenses in language are **present tense**, **past tense** and **future tense**. **Present tense** **Simple present tense** **The verb shows action that happens regularly.** **Example:** - **Juma eats food..** - **My sister cooks food** - **He goes to the market.** - **They play football.** - **We play football.** - **You play football** - **I eat food.** ***How do we make the Simple Present Tense?*** Subject + auxiliary verb +main verb The important **things to be considered**. i. For positive sentences, **we do not normally use the auxiliary**. ii. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it, personal nouns, my sister etc), we add **S** to the main verb or **es** to the auxiliary. iii. For the verb **to be**, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives. The verbs functions as main verbs because there no any helping verbs that goes with them. iv. The 1^st^ singular, 2^nd^ person singular and plural, 1^st^ person plural, and 3^rd^ person plural we do not add **S** (I, you, we, they) More examples; - I/ you/ we/ they read a book. - He/ she/ it read a book. - I/ you/ we/ they do not read a book. - He/ she/it do**es** not read a book? - Do I/ you/we/they read a book? - Do**es** he/she/it read? ***How do we use the Simple Present Tense?*** We use the simple present tense when; - The action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future **Present continuous tense** It shows the action is going on. - I am doing a home work. - She is writing a letter. - He is walking. - They are singing a song. **Present perfect tense** It shows the action is already at particular time. - I have done a home work. - I have written a letter. - She has gone to school. **Present perfect continuous tense** It shows the action was taking place at a certain point of time. - I have been doing homework - I have been writing a letter **Past tense** **Simple past tense** **The verb shows action that happened.** - **I wrote a letter to my friend Masebo.** - **I did a home work.** - **I went to school yesterday** **Past continuous tense** **It shows action was going on in past.** - **I was doing a home work.** - **I was writing a letter.** - **They were writing notes.** **Past perfect tense** **It shows the action was already at certain point of time in past.** - **I had done a home work.** - **I had written a letter.** - **They had written notes** **Past perfect continuous tense** **It shows the action was taking place at a certain point of time in past.** **I had been doing a home work.** **I had been writing a letter.** **They had been wring notes** **Future tense** **Simple Future tense** **The verb shows action that will happen. We always use future to make prediction about future, that the action will take place in the future/ in the coming time.** **The structure of future tense is Subject+ auxiliary verb WILL/ SHALL + Main verb (simple present)** - **I will go to school.** - **She will write a letter.** - We shall go to the market. **Future continuous tense** Formed by **Subject+ auxiliary verb WILL/ SHALL + Auxiliary verb- BE+ Main verb (present participle) - base-ing.** - **I will be writing a letter at 7.00 a.m** - **She will be drinking alcohol by tomorrow.** - **They shall be eating food by Monday morning** **Future perfect** The future perfect talks about the past in the future. The structure is **Subject+ auxiliary verb WILL/ SHALL + Auxiliary verb- HAVE+Main verb (past participle).** - I will have finished by tomorrow. - They will have written notes by Monday morning. - She will not have gone to school. - You will have forgotten by then **Future perfect continuous tense** Its structure is **Subject+ auxiliary verb WILL/ SHALL + Auxiliary verb- HAVE+ Auxiliary verb BEEN +Main verb (present participle).** - **I will have been singing** - **I will have been writing** - **They will have been playing** **ARTICLES** **Definition of Articles** An **article** is a word used to modify a noun, which is a person, place, object, or idea. Technically, an article is **special adjectives**, which is any word that modifies a noun. Articles point out or refer to nouns. **TYPES OF ARTICLES** There are two different types of articles that we use in writing and conversation to point out or refer to a noun or group of nouns which are; **definite and indefinite articles.** But also we have zero articles which there no use of article of all. **Definite Article** This article is the word **the**, which refers directly to a specific noun or groups of nouns. For example: - the sun - the moon - *Give me **the book**.* Refers to a specific book whose identity is known or obvious to the listener; as such it has a markedly different meaning from This sentence uses an indefinite article which does not specify what book is to be given. (Not known to the listener). ***General rules*** 1. Use *the* to refer to something which has already been mentioned. Examples - A thief stole my bag. **The thief** hasn\'t been caught yet. - I was walking past Benny\'s Bakery when I decided to go into **the bakery** to get some bread. - There\'s a job available at TIA. **The job** advertised yesterday. 2. Use *the* when you assume there is just one of something in that place, even if it has not been mentioned before. Examples - We went on a walk in **the forest** yesterday. ( no other forest) - Where is **the bathroom**? ( it is only one) - My father enjoyed **the book** you gave him. ( the listener knows the book he is talking about it is only one) 3. Use *the* in sentences or clauses where you define or identify a particular/specific person or object. Examples - **The man** who wrote this book is famous. - I scratched **the red car** parked outside. - I live in **the small house** with a blue door. - He is **the doctor** I came to see. 4. Use *the* to refer to people or objects that are unique. Examples - **The sun** rose at 6:17 this morning. - You can go anywhere in **the world**. - Clouds drifted across **the sky**. - **The president** will be speaking on TV tonight. - **The CEO** of Total is coming to our meeting. 5. Use *the* before superlatives and ordinal numbers. Examples - This is **the highest building** in New York. - She read **the last chapter** of her new book first. - You are **the tallest person** in our class. - This is **the third time** I have called you today. 6. Use *the* with adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people. Examples - **The French** enjoy cheese. - **The elderly** requires special attention. - She has given a lot of money to **the poor**. 7. Use *the* with decades. Examples - He was born in **the seventies**. - It present since **the 1820\'s**. 8. Use *the* with clauses introduced by *only* Examples - This is **the only day** we\'ve had sunshine all week. - You are **the only person** he will listen to. - **The only tea** I like is black tea. 9. Use *the* with proper nouns of geographical areas, rivers, mountain ranges, groups of islands, canals, and oceans. Examples - They are travelling in **the Arctic**. - Our ship crossed **the Atlantic** in 7 days. - I will go on a cruise down **the Nile**. - Hiking across **the Rocky Mountains** would be difficult. 10. Use *the* with countries that have plural names Examples - I have never been to **the Netherlands**. - Do you know anyone who lives in **the Philippines**? 11. Use *the* with countries that include the words \"republic\", \"kingdom\", or \"states\" in their names. Examples - She is visiting **the United States**. - James is from **the Republic of Ireland**. 12. Use *the* with newspaper names. Examples - I read it in **the Guardian**. - She works for **the New York Times**. 13. Use *the* with the names of famous buildings, works of art, museums, or monuments. Examples - Have you been to **the Vietnam Memorial**? - We went to **the Louvre** and saw **the Mona Lisa**. - I would like to visit **the Eiffel Tower**. - I saw King Lear at **the Globe**. 14. Use *the* with the names of hotels & restaurants, unless these are named after a person. Examples - They are staying at **the Hilton** on 6th street. - We ate at **the Golden Lion**. 15. Use *the* with the names of families, but not with the names of individuals. Examples - We\'re having dinner with **the Smiths** tonight. - **The Browns** are going to the play with us. **When not to use \"the\"** 1. Do not use *the* with names of countries (except for the special cases above). Examples - Germany is an important economic power. - He\'s just returned from Zimbabwe. 2. Do not use *the* with the names of languages. Examples - French is spoken in Tahiti. - English uses many words of Latin origin. - Indonesian is a relatively new language. 3. Do not use *the* with the names of meals. Examples - Lunch is my favorite meal. - I like to eat breakfast early. 4. Do not use *the* with people\'s names. Examples - John is coming over later. - Mary Carpenter is my boss. 5. Do not use *the* with titles when combined with names. Examples - Prince Charles is Queen Elizabeth\'s son. - President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. 6. Do not use *the* after the \'s possessive case Examples - His brother\'s car was stolen. - Peter\'s house is over there. 7. Do not use *the* with professions Examples - Engineering is a well-paid career. - He\'ll probably study medicine. 8. Do not use *the* with names of shops Examples - I\'ll get the card at Smith\'s. - Can you go to Boots for me? 9. Do not use *the* with years Examples - 1948 was a wonderful year. - He was born in 1995. 10. Do not use *the* with uncountable nouns Examples - Rice is an important food in Asia. - Milk is often added to tea in England. - War is destructive. 11. Do not use *the* with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands Examples - Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in Alaska. - She lives near Lake Windermere. - Have you visited Long Island? 12. Do not use *the* with most names of towns, streets, stations and airports Examples - Victoria Station is in the centre of London. - Can you direct me to Bond Street? - She lives in Florence. - They\'re flying into Heathrow. **Indefinite Articles** **Indefinite articles** are the words **'a'** and '**an**'. Each of these articles is used to refer to a noun, but the noun being referred to is not a specific person, place, object, or idea. It can be any noun from a group of nouns. For example: - a boy, a girl, - an event, an orange, an hour **Article Usage with Examples** **The use 'an'** If the noun that comes after the article begins with a vowel sound, the appropriate indefinite article to use is **\'an**.\' A **vowel sound** is a sound that is created by any vowel in the English language: \'a,\' \'e,\' \'i,\' \'o,\' \'u,\'. For example: - an advertisement - an element - an orange - an hour **The use 'a'** If the noun that comes after the article begins with a consonant sound and the noun is in singular, the appropriate indefinite article to use is **\'a**.\' A **consonant sound** is a sound that comes from the letters that are not the vowels in the English language. For example: - a tire - a house - a boy - girl - a tape