Topic 6 - Memory PDF

FPSH1014 Understanding Self and Others Topic 6 Memory Prepared by: Tony Ooi Presented by: Kelvin Wee  Introduction ❑ Memory = retention of information. ❑ It includes: ▪ Skills (e.g. driving a car, tying shoelaces); ▪ Facts that...

FPSH1014 Understanding Self and Others Topic 6 Memory Prepared by: Tony Ooi Presented by: Kelvin Wee  Introduction ❑ Memory = retention of information. ❑ It includes: ▪ Skills (e.g. driving a car, tying shoelaces); ▪ Facts that never change (own birthday), facts that seldom change (personal email address, phone number); ▪ Facts that frequently change (where you last left your keys); ▪ Important (and also unimportant) experiences; ▪ Useful facts; ▪ Trivia that you can’t imagine ever using etc. Methods of Testing Memory ❑ Sometimes, we want to remember a word/name, and all we can think of is something similar that we know isn’t right. ❑ In this tip-of-the-tongue experience, we might know the 1st letter, number of syllables, even if you can’t generate the word itself. ❑ In other words, memory isn’t an all-or-none thing. ❑ You might/might not remember something depending on how someone tests you. ❑ Let’s look at the main methods of testing memory. Continue… Methods of Testing Memory Free Recall ❑ Free recall = describing what you remember. ❑ To recall something is to produce a response. ❑ Examples: ▪ “Tell me what you did today.” ▪ Name the 8 planets in the Solar System. ❑ Free recall almost always understates/minimizes the actual amount you know. ❑ Imagine trying to name all your classmates from primary 1, you might not do well; but your low recall ≠ you have completely forgotten them. Continue… Methods of Testing Memory Cued Recall ❑ Cued recall = method to test memory by providing significant hints about the material. ❑ Examples: ▪ Showing a photograph of your classmates from primary 1; ▪ Providing a list of your classmates’ initials. ▪ Name the 8 planets; hint: 1 is where you live, 1 wears a belt, 1 has a giant red spot… ❑ These cues/hints will help you remember better. Continue…  Recall the Topic’s Title Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3 Topic 4 Topic 5 Topic 6 Memory  Recall the Topic’s Title Topic 1 I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ to P_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Topic 2 B_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L P_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Topic 3 S_ _ S _ _ _ _ _ & P_ _ _ C _ _ _ _ _ Topic 4 D_ V _ _ _ _ M _ _ _ _ Topic 5 L_ _ _ N _ _ _ Topic 6 Memory Methods of Testing Memory Recognition ❑ Recognition = method of testing memory by asking someone to choose the correct item among options. ❑ People usually recognize more items > they recall. ❑ Examples: ▪ Giving you a list of 60 names & ask you to check off the correct names of classmates from your primary 1 class. ▪ Which of the following is 1 of the 8 Solar Planets: Gemini, Mars, Centaurus, Zeus, Orion? ❑ Multiple-choice tests use the recognition method. Continue… Methods of Testing Memory Saving ❑ Savings = method of testing memory by comparing the speed of original learning to the speed of relearning. ❑ If it takes you less time than when you first learned that material, some memory has persisted. ❑ Examples: ▪ It’s faster to learn the correct list of classmates names from your primary 1 faster > a list of people you had never met. ▪ Which list one can you memorize faster? i. Mars, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Earth, Uranus, Neptune, Mercury. ii. Orion, Gemini, Zeus, Centaurus, Europa, Elara, Carpo, Aoede. Continue… Methods of Testing Memory ❑ Free recall, cued recall, recognition, & savings are tests of explicit memory. ❑ Explicit (direct) memory = a memory that someone can state, recognizing it as a memory. ❑ They’re memories that are consciously recalled. Implicit Memory ❑ Implicit memory (indirect memory) = an influence of some experience on what you say/do even though you might not be aware of the influence. ❑ Information that people don't purposely try to remember is stored in implicit memory; sometimes known as unconscious/automatic memory. Continue… Methods of Testing Memory Implicit Memory ❑ Examples: ▪ Singing a familiar song; ▪ Typing on your computer keyboard; ▪ Brushing your teeth; ▪ Drive a car; ▪ Knowing how to use utensils; ▪ Navigating a familiar area such as your neighbourhood; ▪ Recalling how to use the microwave etc. ❑ These are skills that you learn & then don't have to relearn again in order to perform them. ❑ Implicit memories are largely unconscious & occur automatically; don't need to think about all steps to follow in order to complete a task. Procedural & Declarative Memories ❑ Procedural Memories ▪ Knowledge of how to do something. ▪ Essentially, procedural memory is a type of implicit memory. ▪ E.g. how to do something, such as walking or eating with chopsticks etc. ❑ Declarative Memories ▪ Memories we can readily state in words. ▪ Facts/memories of past events that can be ‘declared’ rather than performed. ▪ E.g. important life event, who came to dinner last night, your mom’s birthday, information about the world etc. Continued… Procedural & Declarative Memories ❑ Procedural memory differs from declarative memory in several ways: ▪ Both types of memory depend on different brain areas. ▪ Brain damage can impair one without impairing the other. ▪ Procedural memory develops gradually, unlike declarative memory which often form all at once; example: ✔ You need practice to develop procedural memories of how to play a piano. ✔ You might very quickly form declarative memory of the location of the washroom in the campus. Application: Suspect Line-ups as Recognition Memory ❑ Suspect line-ups are an example of recognition method of testing memory. ❑ Unfortunately, witnesses sometimes choose the best available choice, which may not be correct. ❑ Psychologists have recommended ways to decrease inaccurate identifications. Continued… Application: Suspect Line-ups as Recognition Memory ❑ Ways to decrease inaccurate identifications: i. Instruct witness that the guilty person may/may not be in the line-up; witness doesn’t have to identify someone. ii. Officer supervising the line-up should be a “blind” observer – someone who doesn’t know which person the investigators suspect; otherwise officer might unintentionally bias the witness. Continued… Application: Suspect Line-ups as Recognition Memory ❑ Ways to decrease inaccurate identifications: iii. If witness said that culprit had some distinctive feature (e.g. scar above the left eye), all suspects in line-up should have that feature; otherwise witness would just pick the one with a scar. iv. Postpone as long as possible any feedback about whether witness chose someone whom police suspected; any sign of agreement adds to witness’s confidence. Information-Processing View of Memory ❑ Information-processing model = concept that information enters a system that in turn processes, codes, & stores it. ❑ Human memory is like a computer’s memory system (having both temporary & permanent memory); ▪ Type on keyboard stores in temporary memory. ▪ Store in hard drive stable, long-lasting representation. ❑ Information enters short-term memory (temporary store) transfers into long-term memory (like a hard disk). ❑ Eventually, a cue from environment prompts the system to retrieve stored information. Short-Term & Long-Term Memory ❑ Short-term memory = temporary storage of recent events. ❑ Long-term memory = a relatively permanent store. ❑ 2 types of long-term memory: i. Semantic memory = memory of principles & facts; e.g. ▪ Remembering who is your psychology lecturer. ii. Episodic memory = memory for specific events in your life; e.g. ▪ Remembering an embarrassing moment at a party. Continued… Short-Term & Long-Term Memory ❑ Episodic memories are more fragile > semantic memories. ❑ When you try to recall an event from long ago, you might be wrong/uncertain about many details; examples: ▪ If you don’t play badminton for years, you’ll still remember the rules. ▪ However, your memory of a particular badminton game will fade. ❑ People with certain kinds of brain damage lose most of their episodic memories, but keep their semantic memories. Capacity of Short-Term & Long-Term Memory ❑ Psychologists have traditionally drawn several distinctions between short-term & long-term memory. ❑ One difference is capacity: ❑ Long-term memory – vast, hard-to-measure capacity. ❑ Short-term memory – limited capacity. Continued… Capacity of Short-Term & Long-Term Memory EHGPH JROZNQ SRBWRCN MPDIWFBS ZYBPIAFMO Capacity of Short-Term & Long-Term Memory ❑ Most healthy, educated adults can repeat a list of about 7 letters, numbers/words; some remember 8 or 9; others only 5 or 6. ❑ When people try to repeat a longer list, they may fail to remember even the first 7 items. ❑ You can store more information in short-term memory by chunking. Continued… Capacity of Short-Term & Long-Term Memory ❑ Chunking = grouping items into meaningful sequences/clusters. ❑ By separating individual elements into larger blocks, information becomes easier to retain & recall; ❑ Examples: ▪ Telephone numbers are often chunked to help people remember better: 1300-88-2525; 018-547 1926. ▪ After chunking a set of alphabets, they can be rearranged & clustered: CFKNEHZYXMBICBATAC i. CFK-NEH-ZYX-MBI-CBA-TAC ii. KFC-HEN-XYZ-IBM-ABC-CAT iii. KFC-IBM (companies); HEN-CAT (animals); ABC-XYZ (letters) Decay of Memories over Time ❑ Why do short-term memories fade? ❑ Neuroscientists’ hypotheses: ▪ Brain representation decays over time – brain protein weakens a memory trace, presumably to avoid permanently storing unimportant information. ▪ Interference from similar memories which we get confuse one with another. ❑ Long-term memories last varying periods, up to a lifetime.  Working Memory ❑ Working memory = system for dealing with current information, including the ability to shift attention back & forth among tasks as necessary. ❑ Examples of working memory in action: ▪ Ask for directions & remembering until we reach our destination; ▪ Learning the name of someone new & keeping it in mind throughout the conversation. Continued…  Working Memory ❑ Executive functioning = cognitive process that governs shifts of attention. ❑ The quality of good working memory is the ability to shift attention as needed among different tasks; example: ▪ Hospital nurse has to keep track of several patients’ needs. ▪ A patient’s treatment is interrupted to handle an emergency return to complete work with 1st patient. Topic 6 Memory Part 2  Encoding, Storage & Retrieval ❑ Psychologists distinguish between 3 necessary stages in the learning & memory process: i. Encoding ii. Storage iii. Retrieval ❑ Encoding = initial learning of information. ❑ Storage = maintaining information over time. ❑ Retrieval = ability to access information when you need it. Factors That Influence Encoding Do We Try to Remember Something? ❑ How well we remember depends on whether we try to remember it. ❑ If we aren’t expect to need some information very often + easily obtainable when needed put little effort to remember it. Emotional Arousal ❑ Emotional arousal also enhances memory encoding. ❑ Moderate emotion provides benefits by increasing the release of hormones cortisol & adrenaline stimulate brain areas that enhance memory storage. ❑ E.g. remembering your first day of college, your first kiss etc. Continued…  ▪ LEMON ▪ GRAPE ▪ POTATO Instructions ▪ COCONUT ▪ CUCUMBER i. Read the list on the right. ▪ TOMATO ii. Look away & write as many of the words as you can. ▪ BROCCOLI ▪ APPLE ▪ SPINACH ▪ TOMATO ▪ ORANGE ▪ LETTUCE ▪ CARROT ▪ STRAWBERRY ▪ BANANA ▪ TOMATO ▪ PEACH ▪ NAKED ▪ LIME ▪ PINEAPPLE ▪ TURNIP ▪ MANGO ▪ BLUEBERRY ▪ TOMATO ▪ APRICOT ▪ WATERMELON  Instructions i. Read the list on the right. ii. Look away & write as many of the words as you can. Factors That Influence Encoding Repetition ❑ The word ‘TOMATO’ was probably a word you remembered as it occurred several times instead of just once. ❑ Repetition helps in encoding, especially if repetitions are spread out. Primary & Recency Effects ❑ You would also likely remembered the word ‘LEMON’ & ‘WATERMELON’ as they were the first & last items on the list. ❑ Primacy effect = tendency to remember well the first items; Recency effect = tendency to remember the final items. Continued… Factors That Influence Encoding Distinctiveness ❑ In a list of mostly similar items, the unusual ones are easier to remember. ❑ The word ‘CARROT’ was distinctive because of its size, colour & font. Continued… Factors That Influence Encoding Distinctiveness ❑ The word ‘NAKED’ also stood out; it’s the only item on the list that was neither a fruit nor a vegetable. ❑ It’s unlikely that you’ll remember the word ‘LIME’; explanation: ▪ This word came right after the word ‘NAKED’. ▪ When we see an unexpected sex-related word, it grabs attention so strongly that we pay less attention to the next word & sometimes up to the next 4 – 5 words (Arnell, Killman, & Fijavz, 2007). How to Organize Your Studying 1. Studying All at Once/Spread Out ❑ Should you study a little at a time OR wait & do it all shortly before the test? ❑ Studying all at once is okay if you need to remember it immediately & never again. ❑ However, if you care about long-term memory, studying all at once is seldom effective, no matter how hard you study that one time. Continued… How to Organize Your Studying 2. Advantages of Varied Study ❑ Varying the conditions of learning makes a task seem more difficult. ❑ However, in the long run, it helps improves long-term memory. ❑ E.g. when revising a chapter, you should occasionally go back to previous chapters & try to answer the review questions & concept checks. Continued… How to Organize Your Studying 3. Taking Notes During Class ❑ Extremely brief notes do little good; trying to record every word is problematical also. ❑ Highly detailed notes aren’t always an advantage. ❑ Often it’s better to think about the content & try to summarize the main ideas in an organized fashion. Continued… How to Organize Your Studying 4. What You Learn During Testing ❑ To strengthen a memory, it’s essential to practice recalling it. ❑ You remember better if you test yourself. ❑ A test forces you to generate the material instead of passively reading something. ❑ Also, it shows what you don’t know, encouraging you to pay more attention to that material/to study it in a different way.  Mnemonic Devices ❑ Mnemonic device = any memory aid based on encoding items in a special way. ❑ An effective strategy to memorize something is to attach systematic retrieval cues to each term to remind yourself of the terms when you need them. ❑ Example: ▪ Remembering the rainbow colours (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet) Roy G. Biv. Continued…  Mnemonic Devices ❑ Method of loci = procedure of memorizing a series of places & then using vivid images to associate each location with something you want to remember. ❑ It’s a type of mnemonic technique where items are transformed into mental images linked to specific locations/positions. ❑ Example: ▪ To help you remember your shopping list, imagine each product at a different spot on a familiar street. Continued…  Storage ❑ Most of the work of forming a memory pertains to encoding. ❑ Storing/maintaining a memory sounds like a passive process, but important things happen here, too. ❑ Consolidation = process where, as time passes after initial learning, some memories change in ways that make them available much later, perhaps forever. ❑ How long does consolidation continue? ❑ Certain kinds of evidence suggest that it continues for decades, but the interpretation of that evidence is ambiguous. Continued…  Storage ❑ Research findings: ▪ People in their 60s & 70s remember events from their adolescence & early adulthood better than more recent events. ▪ E.g. older adults generally remember the music, movies, and politicians from their youth better than they remember comparable items from recent years. ❑ Interpretation: ▪ Memories continued to consolidate, year after year. ▪ Memories in young adulthood formed more strongly in the first place. Continued…  Retrieval ❑ People sometimes imagine that memory is like playing back a recording of an event. ❑ However, memory differs from a recording in many ways: i. Something that you forget at first, you may recall later. ▪ Amnesia = loss of memory. ▪ Hypermnesia = gain of memory over time. Continued…  Retrieval ❑ However, memory differs from a recording in many ways: ii. Focusing on one aspect of a memory weakens other aspects. ▪ E.g. someone asks you to describe a particular part of an experience “Tell me about the meals you had on your beach trip.” Then someone else asks you to describe the beach trip in general. ▪ Answering the 1st question strengthens your memory of the meals, but weakens your memory of everything. Continued…  Retrieval ❑ However, memory differs from a recording in many ways: iii. When we try to recall an experience, we start with details we remember clearly fill in the gaps with reconstruction. ▪ Reconstruction = putting together an account of past events based partly on expectations of what must have happened. ▪ When we try to recall an event, we reconstruct the details; example: ✔ Suppose you try to recall what happened 3 nights ago. With a little effort, you might remember where you were, what you were doing, who was around you etc. ✔ If you aren’t quite sure, you fill in the gaps with what usually happens. ✔ Within weeks, you gradually forget that night; if you try to remember it, you will rely more on “what must have happened,” omitting more & more details. Retrieval & Interference ❑ Interference is a major cause of forgetting. ❑ When we try to remember something, we might confuse it with something else we have learned. ❑ If we learn several sets of related materials, they interfere with each other. ❑ 2 types of interference: i. Proactive interference ii. Retroactive interference Continued… Retrieval & Interference ❑ Proactive interference = procedure in which old materials increase forgetting of new materials. ▪ Older memories make it more difficult to learn new things. ▪ Example: if you move into a new house, you might find yourself accidentally writing your old address down when filling out forms. Continued… Retrieval & Interference ❑ Retroactive interference = procedure in which new materials increase forgetting of old materials. ▪ Learning new things can make it more difficult to recall things that we already know. ▪ Example: a musician might learn a new piece, only to find that the new song makes it more difficult to recall an older, previously learned piece. Memory for Traumatic Events ❑ Emotionally arousing memories are usually more memorable than other events. ❑ Any emotionally arousing event stimulates release of cortisol & epinephrine, which stimulate brain areas important for storing memories. ❑ Also, highly unusual events tend to be memorable. ❑ Repression = according to Freudian theory, the motivated removal of something to the unconscious. ❑ Many clinicians now prefer the term dissociation. ❑ Dissociation = memory that one has stored but can’t retrieve. Continued… Memory for Traumatic Events ❑ Whether someone remembers a traumatic experience depends on: ▪ Age at the time of the event; ▪ Severity of the event; ▪ Reaction of other family members. ❑ Research Findings: ▪ Studies on young adult women who had been victims of childhood sexual abuse. ▪ Victims who are older at the time of the incident remembered it better than those who were younger. ▪ Memory was also better among those who had more severe/repeated abuse & those who received more family support & encouragement. Amnesia after Damage to the Hippocampus ❑ Amnesia = loss of memory. ❑ Even in the most severe cases of amnesia, people don’t forget: ▪ Everything they ever learned; ▪ How to walk, talk, or eat. (if they did, it’s called dementia). ❑ In many cases, people with amnesia remember most of their factual knowledge. ❑ What they most often forget is their personal experiences. Continued… Amnesia after Damage to the Hippocampus ❑ Amnesia results from many kinds of brain damage, including damage to the hippocampus. ❑ 2 types of amnesia: ▪ Anterograde amnesia – inability to store new long-term memories. ▪ Retrograde amnesia – loss of memory for events that occurred before the brain damage. ❑ Patients with damage to hippocampus have great difficulty storing new long-term declarative memories, especially episodic memories. ❑ However, they form normal short-term, procedural & implicit memories. Memory Impairments in Alzheimer’s Disease ❑ Alzheimer’s Disease = a progressive disease beginning with mild memory loss & possibly leading to loss of the ability to carry on a conversation & respond to the environment. ❑ A condition that affects about 1% of people over the age of 50. ❑ Alzheimer’s disease is marked by: ▪ Accumulation of harmful proteins in brain; ▪ Deterioration of brain cells; ▪ Impairing arousal & attention. Continued… Memory Impairments in Alzheimer’s Disease ❑ Alzheimer's disease is the most common type of dementia. ❑ In addition to memory problems, a person with Alzheimer’s disease may experience one or more of the following: ▪ Memory loss that disrupts daily life (i.e. getting lost in a familiar place; asking repeating questions). ▪ Trouble handling money & paying bills. ▪ Difficulty completing familiar tasks at home, work/leisure. ▪ Decreased/poor judgment. ▪ Misplacing things; unable to retrace steps to find them. ▪ Changes in mood, personality/behavior.