Ecological Principles for Conservation and Management - SY 2024-25 PDF

Ecological Principles for Conservation and Management Learning Content for Weeks 1-2 Natural Resource Conservation...

Ecological Principles for Conservation and Management Learning Content for Weeks 1-2 Natural Resource Conservation BS in Environmental Science 1st semester, SY 2024-25 Richel E. Relox, Ph.D. Source: https://www.vu.edu.au/research Associate Professor V Department of Environmental Science and Technology College of Science and Mathematics University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines 1 Email: [email protected] What is Ecology? study of the interactions between organisms and their environment how organisms interact with one another and also to their environment Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://www.reddit.com 2 Hierarcy of Life or Biological Organization hierarchy of complex biological structures and systems that define life using a reductionistic approach which states that complex system is the sum of its parts study of life which extends from the microscopic scale of the molecules and cells that make up organisms to the global scale of the living planet. each level in the hierarchy represents an increase in organizational complexity and basic principle behind the Source: https://www.simply.science organization 3 Flow of Energy in the Ecosystems Electromagnetic spectrum is the sun's total energy emission or radiant energy Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 4  Law of the Conservation of Energy energy as the ability to do work or cause change which exists in two main types such as potential and kinetic energy 1st law of thermodynamics: energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can be converted from one form to another 2nd law of thermodynamics: whenever energy is converted from one form to another, a certain amount is lost in the form of heat in which no conversion is 100% efficient only within the range of 20% to 40% efficient. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 5  Solar Energy Flow Around 32% of solar sun's radiant energy is reflected back into space by dust and clouds in the atmosphere and from Earth’s surface either from land, water, soil, or vegetation called albedo The rest, 67% of the incoming solar energy is absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, land, water, and vegetation and converted to heat Only 1% to 2% is used by photosynthetic organisms Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 6 Primary Production and Net Production Around 243 million metric tons of organic matter is produced each year which is a source of energy of other organisms Gross Primary Production (GPP) is the total amount of biomass produced Net Primary Production (NPP) is the difference between GPP and respiration (R) at the cellular level for plant growth and maintenance Tropical forest is the most productive with 1,200 grams per square meter per year than deserts with 90 grams Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 7 Food Chains feeding sequence in ecosystems that shows who eats who to determine the path through which energy and nutrients move in ecosystems Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 8  Food Webs it is a collection of interconnected food chains that provides feeding relationships and the flow of energy and nutrients in ecosystems the greater the number of channels through which energy can flow, the greater the stability of the food web and the ecosystem. 9 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014  Trophic Levels trophic level is the feeding level in a community composed of producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer and so on Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 10  Pyramids of Energy Only about 5% to 20% of the biomass and energy in one trophic level moves to the next with 10% typical transfer rate. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 11  Pyramid of Biomass The energy contained in the various trophic levels of a food web forms a pyramid, the energy pyramid called biomass pyramid Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 12  it is the circular flow of an element from the nonliving (abiotic) environment, such as rocks, air, and water, into the bodies of living organisms and then back into the nonliving environment once again it is the continuation of life depends on the function of these cycles, also known as elemental or biogeochemical cycles. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://www.pmfias.com 13  Carbon Cycle Carbon dioxide enters into pores in the leaves of plants and the carbon of the carbon dioxide molecules is combined with hydrogen from water to form sugar and other organic molecules. When the leaves are consumed by an animal, some of the carbon-containing organic compounds are digested and converted into a muscle and the rest is converted to energy in cellular respiration. Carbon is released as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere via pores in the leaves while in animals, the carbon dioxide is exhaled from the lungs. Carbon also returns to the atmosphere when an organism dies and decompose and such decomposition releases carbon into soil and air and reenter the biological world through plant photosynthesis. 14 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Video: https://youtu.be/CLqFUI2Pvlc  Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen (N2) diffuses from the atmosphere into the soil. Then, the nitrogen-fixing bacteria combine the nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia and eventually incorporate the nitrogen into amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. When eaten by animals, amino acids are broken down, urea is formed as excreted as wastes which contain nitrogen- containing protein molecules eventually broken down (decomposed) by successive groups of soil bacteria into nitrates, a process called nitrification All nitrogen in plants, animals, soil, and water eventually reenters the atmospheric reservoir from which it originally came by denitrifying bacteria in the soil and water that break down 15 nitrates. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Video: https://youtu.be/A8qTRBc8Bws  Phosphorus Cycle Raindrops dissolve phosphate in the rock and wash it into the soil which is a potential plant nutrient. Phosphorus atoms pass into the plants and then into the animals that feed on them and when plants and animals die, their bodies are decomposed by bacteria and fungi Phosphorus is released into the soil and some may be taken up by other plants, and some of it may be washed into a stream after rainstorms The phosphorus may be absorbed by algae and rooted plants and eaten by fish and when aquatic organisms die and decompose, phosphorus- containing materials are released back into the water. Phosphorus in freshwater systems may eventually make their way to the oceans which settles to the ocean floor, forming part of the sediment. Over a period of millions of years, these sediments may form phosphate rock and geological processes such as upheaval may expose the rock to the atmosphere and due to weathering and erosion, some of the phosphorus in the rock may become part of the soil once again. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 16 Video: https://youtu.be/izgqpfPZyRQ Law of Tolerance survival of any organism depends on many essential factors in its physical environment like water, temperature, oxygen, and nutrients which vary and is not constant. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 17 Habitat and Niche habitat is the address of the organism where the organism lives niche is the functional role of organism like what it does, and its relationship to its food and its enemies Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://www.philippineeaglefoundation.org 18 Competitive Exclusion Principle two species of plants or animals cannot occupy the same ecological niche indefinitely, the population of one of them will decline to zero. elimination of one of the species whose niche corresponds to the niche of another species, occurs for two reasons. First, competition between two species with identical niches would be intense in which plants would compete for sunlight, soil moisture, nutrients, and so on and animals would compete for food, breeding sites, cover, and so on. Second, even though the species occupy identical niches, one would expect that the two species would not be equally well adapted to occupy that niche. 19 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014  Carrying Capacity number of organisms an ecosystem can support determined by a variety of factors like food supply, nesting sites, water supplies, climatic conditions, and waste assimilation. determined by source and sink functions source referring to the resources an organism needs to survive and reproduce, and the term sink referring to the Source: https://ecosystemsunited.com ability of an ecosystem to get rid of waste. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 20 Population Growth and Decline Numerous biotic factors (biological) and abiotic factors (physical and chemical) stimulate growth, causing a population to reach its biotic potential which is the maximum reproductive rate. The abilities to find food and hide from predators are two biotic factors that favor survival and reproduction and light or temperature, which are also two abiotic factors Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 21 Density Independent Factors Any factor that limits the growth of a population of organisms, irrespective of the number of organisms present in a given habitat such as drought, heat waves, cold spells, storms, floods, and natural contamination such as silt Photo by: Relox (2015) Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 22 Density Dependent Factors are those whose influence in controlling population size increases or decreases depending on the density of a population. Four major density- dependent factors: predation, competition, parasitism, and Source: https://www.khanacademy.org disease. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 23  Biological Succession is the replacement of one community of organisms by another in an orderly and predictable manner. Ecosystems are dynamic entities due to organisms that grow and die, populations which increase and decrease and conditions which change over time Source: http://carrollapes.weebly.com with the seasons Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 24 Video: https://youtu.be/8ceDE01iWLE  S-Curve a population growth in whenever a species is established in a new habitat with adequate resources, its population grows in a characteristic way. S-shaped, or sigmoidal, curve four distinct phases such as (1) the establishment phase, (2) the explosive (logarithmic) phase, (3) the deceleration phase, and (4) the dynamic equilibrium phase. 25 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014  Primary Succession Succession that occurs in areas not previously occupied by organisms During primary succession, life becomes established on previously lifeless areas such as lava-covered slopes, rubble left in the wake of a landslide, or even on the waste heaps of an open-pit mine. primary succession that starts on bare rock or sand may require 500 to 1,000 years before the climax stage is reached Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 26  Secondary Succession it is the succession in an area that was previously occupied by organisms which is much more common than primary succession secondary succession occurs when a given ecosystem is partially destroyed by natural or human forces such as fires, volcanoes, hurricanes, deforestation, and agriculture. secondary succession requires only 100 years to move from the pioneer 27 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 to the climax stage  BIOMES large terrestrial community characterized by its climate and unique assemblage of plants and animals 28 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014  Terrestrial Ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystems 29 Characteristics of Biomes Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 30  Temperature and Precipitation of Each Biome 31 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014  Tundra Siberian which means “north of the timberline” biome extends from the timberline in the south to the belt of perpetual ice and snow in the north. principal limiting factors are the small amount of solar energy and the bitter winter cold. Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/tundra 32 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 33  Coniferous Forest called taiga which forms an extensive east–west belt just south of the Arctic tundra annual rainfall of 37 to 100 centimeters (15 to 40 inches), average temperatures of 26.6°C (20°F) in the winter to more than 21°C (70°F) in the summer, and a 150-day growing season. Source: https://storymaps.arcgis.com 34 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 35  Deciduous Forest broad-leafed forest biome covers eastern North America, all of Europe, and parts of China, Japan, and Australia abundant precipitation (at least 75 centimeters [30 inches]) and the fairly long growing season Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/deciduous-forest Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 36 37 Tropical Rainforest situated in the warm, equatorial regions wherever there is more than 200 centimeters (80 inches) of rainfall annually. located primarily in Central America, in South America along the Amazon and Orinoco rivers, in the Congo River basin of Africa, in Madagascar, and in Southeast Asia. Heavy rains may fall daily throughout the rainy season and the forest floor is relatively dark and poorly vegetated. highly layered, or stratified, with the tree crowns occurring at three or even four different levels. Animals are abundant and highly diverse. Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/rain- forest/ 38 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 39  Savanna warm-climate grassland characterized by scattered trees which are located primarily in South America, Africa, India, and Australia. Rainfall averages 100 to 150 centimeters (40 to 60 inches) per year and wet seasons alternate with dry seasons, and fires are common during the prolonged dry spells. Plants must be drought- and fire- resistant like baobab and thorny acacia trees. supports the greatest variety and largest number of hoofed herbivores in the world Source: https://sierrraaamann.wordpress.com 40 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 41  Grassland huge expanse of land characterized, as by grasses located in North American prairie of Canada and the United States, the pampas of South America, the steppes of Eurasia, and the veldts of Africa Average annual precipitation exceeds that typical of the desert biome (over 25 centimeters [10 inches]) but falls below that required for forests (under 75 centimeters [30 inches]). Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/grassland 42 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 43  Desert world’s largest deserts are located in the United States, Mexico, Chile, Africa (Sahara), Asia (Tibet and Gobi), and Australia. Summer temperatures range from about 10°C (50°F) at night to about 48°C (120°F) during the day. Only organisms that have evolved to survive in extreme heat and dryness can survive in the desert. Source: https://www.britannica.com/story/how-do-deserts-form Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 44  45 Summary Video: https://youtu.be/lqxNQpajdpQ Aquatic Ecosystems 46 1. Wetland Ecosystem swamps, salt marshes, and bogs areas that are inundatedor saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 47 conditions. 48 2. Lake Ecosystem formed as a result of many natural forces such as tectonic or volcanic activity Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 49 50  3. Stream Ecosystem continents are drained by streams, waterways that empty into lakes and oceans. fed by surface runoff and groundwater that seeps into them along their banks (usually below the water surface) Two general categories: a. ephemeral streams are those that flow only during one part of the year, typically the wet season when rain or snowmelt is abundant. b. perennial streams are those that flow year-round and fed by rain (and snowmelt in colder areas) but are typically sustained by groundwater during dry periods. 51 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 52  4. Coastal Environment continually subjected to wind, rain, waves, tides, currents, and sea spray Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://www.dw.com 53 54  Types of Coastline Dunes and Beaches source of eroding mineral or a place that sediment can deposit. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://www.agoda.com/ 55  Rocky Cliffs highly diverse, depending on resistance of the rock materials to erosive forces, past and present climatic conditions, and geologic history. Source: https://www.alamy.com Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 56  Coral Reefs formed from animals having calcareous skeletons (hard structures made from calcium materials) and certain species of algae that provide the sediment or “cement” to seal the coral framework Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://philnews.ph 57  Estuarine Ecosystem represent a river–ocean hybrid, possessing some of the characteristics of each ecosystem Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 58  5. Ocean covers 70% of the Earth’s surface and is divided into three major basins: the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://pia.gov.ph 59  Ocean Zonation: Neritic Zone relatively warm, nutrient-rich, shallow region that overlies the continental shelf, a submerged extension of the continent. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://www.thinglink.com 60  Euphotic Zone has sufficient sunlight to support photosynthesis and a considerable population of phytoplankton Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://blog.nature.org/ 61  Bathyal Zone region of semidarkness in which photosynthesis cannot occur here, hence producer organisms are absent can survive. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.org 62  Abyssal Zone the cold, dark-water zone of the ocean depths Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Source: https://sciencing.com 63  Communities occupying the oceanic zones. Seaweeds and algae are the producers, forming the base of the food chains and webs. Zooplankton feed on the producers which are consumed by fish, medusae, and whales. The top consumers are the seabirds, sharks, tuna, swordfish, whales, and humans. The bottom-dwellers, which crawl along or cling to rocks or are buried in the sand or mud, include clams, snails, lobsters, shrimp, crabs, and bacteria. They feed on detritus. There is an upwelling of nutrients from the ocean bottom. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 64  Aquatic Fisheries Habitat Requirements: Temperature Water Depth and Velocity too cold or too warm can delay larger fish require a greater upstream migration of fish, and minimum depth and they can also affects spawning tolerate stronger stream flows ensure the maximum survival rate than smaller fish. of their offspring, and embryos Stream depth also affects will not develop properly and will spawning habitat wherein when have a low chance of survival. stream level is high, spawning required for normal behavior and habitat tends to increase optimal growth of juvenile fish or decrease in lower levels during the rearing stage. 65 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Turbidity Dissolved Oxygen fish avoid streams that have a reduction in dissolved oxygen to high levels of suspended below 5 parts per million (ppm) decreases the swimming speed of sediments adult fish during migration. migrating fish may avoid or oxygen reduction also limits delay their migration when growth rate and food conversion turbidity is excessive efficiency of juvenile fish 66 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 Salinity Substrate Salt levels can limit the movement Gravel beds make good spawning of marine and freshwater grounds because the pores in the gravel itself allow water to pass through with organisms through these areas. much-needed oxygen If river flow is high, the salinity eggs are deposited in spawning gravels level in parts of the estuary can ranging from 1.3 to 15 entimeters (0.5 to drop, adversely affecting shellfish 6 inches) in diameter, with the largest beds. proportion in the range of 1.3 to 3.8 centimeters (0.5 to 1.5 inches). 67 Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014  Cover Food Supply vital to the survival and reproduction of more organic matter (dead or fish. living) in and adjacent to a stream, provide adult and juvenile fish with shade, the larger the aquatic and resting areas, and protection from predation. terrestrial invertebrate populations that feed on such materials. The larger the aquatic and terrestrial invertebrate populations, the higher the numbers of adult and juvenile fish. Source: Chiras and Reganold, 2014 68 Summary Video: https://youtu.be/vINK9ujrRwM Thank you. 69