Environment And Forest Management PDF

D R. W. A. S. L A K M A L I D E PA RT M E N T O F P L A N TAT I O N M A N AG E M E N T FAC U LT Y O F AG R I C U LT U R E A N D P L A N TAT I O N M A N AG E M E N T WAYA M B A U N I V E R S I T Y O F S R I L A N K A. Resource Person Dr. W.A.S. Lakmali Ph.D. (University of Me...

D R. W. A. S. L A K M A L I D E PA RT M E N T O F P L A N TAT I O N M A N AG E M E N T FAC U LT Y O F AG R I C U LT U R E A N D P L A N TAT I O N M A N AG E M E N T WAYA M B A U N I V E R S I T Y O F S R I L A N K A. Resource Person Dr. W.A.S. Lakmali Ph.D. (University of Melbourne ), Australia B.Sc. (Jayawardenapura), M.Phil (Peradeniya) Head – Department of Plantation Management Senior Lecturer Course Information (PM 11023)  Three Credit Course  Theory  Practical  Independent Learning  Assessment:  CA = 30% (Theory, Practical)  End Semester Exam = 70%  Paper – MCQ, Structured Essay, Essay What will cover during the course  Principles of Environmental Science  Ecology  Principles of Forestry Science Forestry Management How to manage the forest plantation From planting to harvesting Earth System  Our earth system consists of land, water and atmosphere as abiotic components.  It also includes biotic components, including trees, animals and the biological environment.  The term “Earth system” refers to all the physical, chemical and biological processes of the earth systems and their interactions and feedback in between. Components of the earth The earth system is mainly consisted of geosphere and biosphere. The collective components of the geosphere are lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and atmosphere. Features of a natural system In a natural system we can see some of the following features;  The components interact with each other  Components form a coherent structure as a whole  Self-regulatory power  Form positive or negative or both positive and negative feedback mechanisms  Each sub component performs a particular function Ecosystems  The Ecosystem, complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all their interrelationships in a particular unit of space.  Can be vary the size  Eg: Terrestrial, Marine, Aquatic ecosystems Components of the Ecosystems  Biotic Components:  Producers  Consumers  Decomposers  Abiotic components  Water  Soil  Air  Interactions among the components. Functions in the Ecosystems  It regulates essential ecological processes  Material recycling  Supports life systems  Food relations  Maintain the stability Food relations  Food Chains  The sequence of plants and animals feeding upon one another is called as Food chain.  Food Web  When food chains in the ecosystems get connect with one another and form complex food relationships. Ecological pyramids  An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between the different living organisms at different trophic levels. Bio-diversity There are three general kinds of biodiversity:  Habitat diversity  Genetic diversity  Species diversity 1. Genetic diversity  All the different genes contained in all the living species, including individual plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms. 2. Species diversity  All the different species, as well as the differences within and between different species. 3. Ecosystem diversity  All the different habitats, biological communities and ecological processes, as well as variation within individual ecosystems. Biological Diversity Measurements  Biodiversity is defined and measured as an attribute that has two components — richness and evenness.  Richness  In most vegetation surveys, richness is expressed as the number of species.  Evenness  The relative abundance of different species in a particular sample, community, or area of habitat. Biodiversity Indices  Shannon Index (H’)  Simpson’s Index (λ)  IVI value During the practical sessions you can further learn about this biodiversity indices. Species What do you mean by species?  A species is often defined as a group of organisms that can reproduce naturally with one another and create fertile offspring.  Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups (Mayr, 1942). Conservation status of species  Red Data Book – The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and The World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC) are drafting categories;  Species are characterized as Extinct, Extinct in the wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable etc.  Use of such quantitative approach in defining categories for species significantly increase the number of species thought to be in danger or near danger. Five Criteria are used for evaluating conservation status of a taxon  The rate of population decline  The geographic range  Whether the species already possesses a small population size (Population size or number of individuals in the population)  Whether the species lives in a restricted area  What is the probability of extinction in the wild IUCN categories Extinct (EX)  There is no doubt that a taxon is extinct because the last individual even has died.  This was concluded after doing extensive surveys in known and expected habitats during the reasonable time frame.  Those surveys have not recorded an individual. Extinct in the wild (EW)  Taxon is extinct in the wild, however the species only survive in cultivation.  Simply the individuals of that taxon are not live in their natural habitat but they live in outside of their past range. Critically Endangered (CR)  A taxon is extremely vulnerable for extinction  because the available evidence reflects that this taxon is facing extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Endangered (EN)  Extensive survey information on the particular taxon is indicates that the taxon is Endangered.  Therefore, taxon is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Vulnerable (VU)  A taxon is vulnerable because the available evidence reflects that this taxon is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Near threatened (NT)  A taxon is near threatened (NT) when the best available data shows that this taxon is not included into Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now,  but it is close to categorized or likely to put into the a threatened category in the near future. Least Concern (LC)  A taxon is Least Concern (LC) because the available evidence reflects that a taxon is not facing a risk of extinction in the wild.  So that it does not include into Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable or Near Threatened.  Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. Data Deficient (DD)  A taxon is data deficient when data (appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution) is not adequate to make direct evaluation against the criteria to make a decision on that taxon is qualified to which category. Not Evaluate (NE)  A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. Importance of IUCN red list  What is the overall status of the Bio diversity  How biodiversity change over time?  What is the conservation status of each species?  Rate of biodiversity loss?  Where the places that bio diversity is being loss rapidly?  What are the reasons of loosing species/ bio diversity? Ecological niche of a species  A species' ecological niche can be defined as the range of resources and conditions allowing the species to maintain a viable population. Ecological niche a) Habitat - where the species lives in the ecosystem b) Relationships - all interactions with other species in the ecosystem c) Nutrition – Ways of obtaining food. The functional role and position of a species (population) within an ecosystem, including what resources it uses, how and when it uses the resources, and how it interacts with other populations is called a niche.  Competition between two species Two Species have the same niche:  Theoretically, if two species have the same niche, one species will exclude A the other. B  One of the species will be superior to the other in utilizing the niche.  The second species disappears from the ecosystem. Two Species partially share a niche:  Both compete in the overlapping parts of the niche for resources, nesting sites, or territory.  If the overlap is minimal, both species can coexist. Ecological Succession Succession can be of two major types: 1. Primary succession When succession is started from plant life on the barren land to fully functioning plant ecosystems (e.g. forest). In primary succession, Pioneer plants e.g. Mosses and lichen, start to “colonized and create the habitat. Then gradually make the conditions better to establish another plant communities. Primary succession Forest Growth Time (years) Successional Stages of the vegetation formation Stable vegetation Climax The Last Stage Well-developed stage Pre-Climax Sub-Climax Pioneers The initial, preliminary stage, of vegetation The First Stage formation Experience harsh conditions Pioneer species  These are the species that occupy the first stand development stage.  Two groups of pioneers can be distinguished:  Pioneers of primary succession – Lichens, mosses, grasses  Pioneers of secondary succession -Fast growing tree species Climax community  Succession stops when species composition changes no longer occur with time, and this community is said to be a climax community. When occur the primary succession Primary succession will begin after:  Melting Glaciers (Continental glaciers & Alpine glaciers), Plants and other life colonize the bare rock.  Volcanic Eruptions and on the larva- Eg.: Hawaii, Columbia Basalts of ancient Oregon.  Volcanic Explosions - Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Mazama (Crater Lake)  On the sand dunes Ecological Succession  Plant succession is a directional change.  Non-seasonal cumulative change in the types of plant species that occupy a given area through time.  It involves the processes of  Establishment  colonization  extinction  One point in the succession spectrum: Can see the collection of species that dominate at that point in the succession. In summary Intermediate vegetation types Bare Soil Pioneer species Climax Time Stable Equilibrium Climax community reached to a point where that they exist in a equilibrium status. Resources in the Ecological Climax Environment Processes vegetation Physical Environment Disturbances in the Forests What is a disturbance?  A disturbance change a forest significantly.  Forest disturbances change the structure and composition of a forest ecosystem.  Eg: Wildfire, Logging, pest and diseases Effect of the Forest Disturbance Fire Fire Forest Growth Secondary Succession Time (years) Secondary succession  Secondary succession is recolonization of areas after a disturbance such as a fire or when a large tree falls.  Secondary succession may starts at a different point than that which occurs with primary succession.  Secondary Succession proceeds at a quicker rate since soil is already formed and ready for use by plants. Fire Disturbance Disturbance events in the forests:  Forest Fires  Disease  Climatic Conditions – Cyclone, Hurricane, tornado, drought, windstorms, etc..  Human Disturbance - Clear cutting (logging, Chena cultivation), etc.  Forest dieback from insect outbreak  Wind storms  Severe flooding Forest fires – The main disturbance The Black Saturday Fires – 2009 –Victoria, Australia Other common forest disturbances…  Storms Extreme weather condition with strong winds  Other common forest disturbances… Damage by Storms Norway spruce with a flat root system on a shallow soil, after having been uprooted by a storm (Schaidt, Germany). Other common forest disturbances…  Insect damage and die back of forests Forest Regeneration Natural regeneration  Establish or start forest by means of natural processes without human intervene.  The process of natural regeneration involves  the renewal of forests by means of self-sown seeds,  Root suckers,  Coppicing Forests regenerate by seed germination after high severity fires. Obligator seeder forests – Entirely regeneration occur through seeds. Eucalyptus regnans, Eucalyptus delegatensis Conifers Start regeneration after disturbances…  Fire – Seed regeneration Start regeneration after disturbances… Fire – Vegetative Regeneration (Resprouting) Light Demand species  Secondary succession starts with a light demanding species.  Pioneers are most probably Light demanders.  To establish, maintain and complete their life cycle, this species strictly need sunlight.  Emergent/dominant layer in the forest. Shade-tolerant species  Shade tolerant are incapable of surviving under full sunlight.  They only establish under the tree canopies.  To establish, maintain and complete their life cycle, this species strictly need shade.  Sub dominant layers of the forest. Biomes  A biome is a major regional group of distinctive plant and animal communities well adapted to the region's physical environment. In other words;  A biome is a broad, regional type of ecosystem characterized by distinctive climate and soil conditions and a distinctive biological community adapted to those conditions. Biomes  To understand the world major biomes, you need to know:  What the climate of the region is like.  Where each biome is found and what its geography is like.  The special adaptations of the vegetation.  The types of animals found in the biome and their physical and behavioural adaptations to their environment. 8 major biomes in the world