PSY 202 Study Guide PDF

This study guide will provide a comprehensive overview of the topics covered in the first four weeks of PSY 202. Week 1 & 2 - Introduction and History of Psychology - Chapter 1 What are the differences between psychology and related disciplines like philosophy? Psychology is the scientific...

This study guide will provide a comprehensive overview of the topics covered in the first four weeks of PSY 202. Week 1 & 2 - Introduction and History of Psychology - Chapter 1 What are the differences between psychology and related disciplines like philosophy? Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. This means it relies on empirical data, or information collected through systematic observation and measurement, and employs the scientific method, which involves using experiments and other methods to test hypotheses in an objective and verifiable way. Philosophy, while also interested in the mind and behavior, tends to address these topics through reasoning and logic, rather than systematic observation and data collection. Who were some of the founding figures in psychological science? Wilhelm Wundt, a founding figure, established structuralism, which aimed to understand the basic components of conscious experience using introspection, where individuals report on their thoughts and feelings. William James established functionalism, which focused on the adaptive purpose of the mind and behavior. James believed the mind evolved over time to help humans adapt to their environment. What were the differences between their approaches? Structuralism (Wundt) focused on breaking down mental processes into their basic elements, using introspection to gather data. Functionalism (James) aimed to understand the purpose and function of the mind and behavior, emphasizing its adaptive value and how it helps humans navigate their environment. What were the names of some of the major movements in psychology? The major movements in psychology include psychoanalysis, behaviorism, the cognitive revolution, neuroscience, informatics, and a multidisciplinary approach. What theoretical or methodological changes happened as a result of those movements? Psychoanalysis (Freud) emphasized the influence of unconscious processes on behavior. It utilized techniques like dream analysis and free association to explore the unconscious mind. Behaviorism (Watson & Skinner) rejected the focus on mental processes, advocating for a study of observable behavior. Behaviorism relied on experiments to study how environmental factors shape behavior.  The cognitive revolution brought back the focus on mental processes, emphasizing the study of thinking, memory, and perception. It used computer metaphors to understand the mind and employed experiments to study cognitive processes. Neuroscience brought about a focus on understanding the biological basis of behavior. Brain imaging like fMRI became a prominent tool to investigate brain activity during cognitive tasks. Informatics introduced the use of large-scale data and computational tools to analyze psychological data, often leveraging social media data. The multidisciplinary approach recognizes the interconnectedness of different levels of analysis in understanding behavior, including the biological, individual, social, and cultural levels. What is the mind/body problem? The mind/body problem is a fundamental question in psychology about the relationship between the mind (thoughts, feelings) and the body/brain. Historically, dualism argued that the mind and body were separate entities, with the mind controlling the body. Modern perspectives, like physicalism, posit that the mind is a product of the brain—the mind is what the brain does. We discussed research on effective studying the first day of class. What did that research show? Research suggests that spacing out your studying over time, known as the spacing effect, leads to more effective learning than cramming. The testing effect demonstrates that being tested or testing yourself on material you’ve learned enhances retention more than simply reviewing the material. Week 2 - Research Methods - Chapter 2 What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis? A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behaviors or events, ideally based on empirical data. A hypothesis is a testable prediction derived from a theory, which researchers use to test, refine, or reject the theory. What is the H.O.M.E.R. approach in scientific method? The H.O.M.E.R. approach stands for Hypothesize, Operationalize, Measure, Evaluate, and Replicate/Revise/Report. It outlines the steps involved in the scientific method: ○ Hypothesize: Formulate a specific, testable prediction. ○ Operationalize: Define the variables and how they will be measured.  ○ Measure: Collect data using the chosen methods. ○ Evaluate: Analyze the data to determine whether it supports the hypothesis. ○ Replicate/Revise/Report: Repeat the study to confirm the findings, revise the hypothesis or theory if necessary, and share the results through publication. Do you know what those terms mean? See descriptions above. What are the different kinds of study designs? Descriptive research: Observes and describes behavior without manipulating variables. Methods include * Naturalistic observation: Observing behavior in its natural setting. * Case studies: In-depth investigation of an individual or a small group. Correlational research: Investigates the relationship between variables to describe, classify, or predict. Experimental research: Manipulates an independent variable to assess its causal effect on a dependent variable. What kinds of questions are can be answered with each? Descriptive research can answer questions about the prevalence, characteristics, and patterns of behavior. Correlational research can address questions about the relationship between variables and whether they are positively or negatively related. It can also help make predictions about future behavior. Experimental research is best suited for investigating cause-and-effect relationships between variables. In laboratory experiments, what are the names of the different kinds of variables? Independent variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter; the cause. Dependent variable (DV): The variable that is measured by the experimenter; the effect. What is the difference between them? The independent variable (IV) is the factor the experimenter changes to see if it has an effect on the dependent variable (DV). The dependent variable (DV) is the outcome or response that is measured to see if it changes as a result of the manipulation of the IV. What is a correlation coefficient? A correlation coefficient (r) is a statistical measure that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. It ranges from -1.0 to 1.0. What do different values of these mean? A positive correlation (r > 0) means that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases. A negative correlation (r < 0) means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. A correlation coefficient of 1.00 represents a perfect positive correlation. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship between the variables. A correlation coefficient of -1.00 indicates a perfect negative correlation. What are different ways psychologists sample subjects in the population? Random sampling: Selecting participants randomly from the population of interest, which helps maximize the representativeness of the sample and allows for generalizability of the findings to the larger population. Convenience sampling: Using participants who are readily available, which is often more practical but can introduce bias and limit the generalizability of the results. What is the difference between validity and reliability? Validity refers to the extent to which a measure accurately assesses what it's supposed to measure. It’s about the accuracy and meaningfulness of the measurement. Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measure over time. It means that if you were to repeat the measurement, you would get similar results. What have you learned about these in Peer Labs? This information is not provided in your sources. What are the different types of descriptive statistics used in psychology? Measures of central tendency: These describe the typical or average score in a dataset: ○ Mean: The average of all the scores. ○ Median: The middle score when the scores are arranged in order. ○ Mode: The most frequently occurring score. Measures of variability: These describe the spread or dispersion of the scores in a dataset: ○ Standard deviation: A measure of how much the scores deviate from the mean. What are some examples of each? Mean: The average height of students in a class. Median: The median income of a city. Mode: The most common hair color in a group. Standard deviation: The variability in exam scores among students. How do psychologists maintain ethical standards? Psychologists adhere to a code of ethics published by the American Psychological Association (APA) to protect the rights and well-being of research participants. Key ethical considerations include: ○ Privacy and confidentiality of participant data. ○ Informed consent: Providing participants with information about the study’s procedures, risks, and benefits before they agree to participate. ○ Relative risks of participation: Ensuring that the potential benefits of the research outweigh any risks to participants. ○ Respect for people: Treating all participants with dignity and respecting their autonomy. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review proposed research to ensure it meets ethical guidelines before it can be conducted. Week 3 - Development Part 1 & 2 - Chapters 9 & 10 What are the brain structures involved in triggering puberty? The pituitary gland, located beneath the hypothalamus, plays a crucial role in puberty. The anterior pituitary secretes various hormones, including: ○ Growth hormone: Stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration. ○ Prolactin: Involved in milk production. ○ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Regulates reproductive processes. ○ Luteinizing hormone (LH): Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. ○ Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Stimulates cortisol release. ○ Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Regulates metabolism. The posterior pituitary, which is a collection of axonal projections from the hypothalamus, secretes oxytocin and vasopressin. What makes each structure different? The anterior pituitary is a glandular structure that produces and releases a variety of hormones directly into the bloodstream. The posterior pituitary does not produce hormones itself. It stores and releases hormones that are synthesized in the hypothalamus. What are Piaget stages of development? Jean Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs in four stages: ○ Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years): Infants acquire knowledge through their senses and motor actions. Object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight, develops during this stage. ○ Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years): Characterized by symbolic thought, where children can use symbols to represent objects and ideas. However, they exhibit egocentrism, difficulty understanding perspectives other than their own. They struggle with conservation, the understanding that quantities remain the same even if their appearance changes. They tend to focus on a limited range of aspects of an object (centration). ○ Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years): Children’s thinking becomes more logical. They understand conservation and become less egocentric. They still have difficulty with abstract reasoning. ○ Formal operational stage (12 years and beyond): Individuals develop the ability to engage in abstract and hypothetical reasoning. They can think about possibilities and multiple perspectives. What are the capacities are acquired at described at different stages? See above. What were stages of Eriksons’s theory of lifespan development? Erik Erikson proposed a theory of psychosocial development that spans the entire lifespan. Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis that individuals must resolve to move on to the next stage. The stages are: ○ Identity vs. confusion (adolescence): Teenagers explore their identity, values, and roles in society. ○ Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood): Young adults seek to form close, committed relationships. ○ Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood): Focus shifts to contributing to society, raising children, or engaging in meaningful work. ○ Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood): Reflecting on one's life, seeking a sense of accomplishment and meaning. What conflicts defined each? See above. What is sex and what is gender (as traditionally defined in psychology)? Sex refers to biological and physiological characteristics that define males and females. This includes: * Chromosomes: XX for females, XY for males. * Anatomy:  Genitalia, gonads, and other sex organs. * Hormones: Testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone. Gender refers to socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities associated with being male or female. It encompasses: * Gender identity: A person’s internal sense of their own gender. * Gender roles: Societal expectations and norms associated with being male or female. * Gender schemas: Cognitive frameworks about what it means to be male or female. What is cultural identity? Cultural identity is the sense of belonging and identification with a particular culture or ethnic group. It involves shared values, beliefs, traditions, and practices. What is attachment theory? John Bowlby's attachment theory proposes that infants are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of survival. Attachment provides infants with security, comfort, and a safe base from which to explore the world. What are the different types of attachment? Mary Ainsworth, through her "Strange Situation" studies, identified four main attachment styles: ○ Secure attachment: Infants display distress upon separation from their caregiver but are easily comforted upon reunion. They see the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore. ○ Avoidant attachment: Infants show little distress upon separation and avoid contact with the caregiver upon reunion. ○ Anxious/Ambivalent attachment: Infants exhibit high distress upon separation and are difficult to soothe upon reunion, showing a mix of clingy and resistant behaviors. ○ Disorganized attachment: Infants show inconsistent and contradictory behaviors, such as freezing, approaching while looking away, or other unusual patterns. What was found in the “Strange Situation” experiments? The "Strange Situation" experiments involved a series of separations and reunions between an infant and their caregiver in a controlled laboratory setting. Researchers observed the infant's reactions to these events to classify their attachment style. The findings demonstrated the existence of different attachment patterns, suggesting that early interactions with caregivers shape the development of attachment styles. What do studies show about the impact of screen time on kids?  Research on the impact of screen time on child development is still evolving, and there are mixed findings. Some studies suggest a correlation between increased screen time and lower language skills in children. However, this does not prove causation. Other studies have failed to find such associations after controlling for other factors. The quality of screen time matters. Educational content tends to be associated with better language outcomes than passive entertainment. Limited experimental research makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions about the overall impact of screen time on children’s well-being. What is dementia? Dementia is a neurological disorder characterized by a progressive decline in cognitive function, including memory, thinking, language, and problem-solving. It often affects older adults. What cognitive abilities begin to decline as we age? As we age, there's a gradual decline in various cognitive abilities, including: ○ Processing speed: The speed at which the brain processes information slows down. ○ Working memory: The ability to hold information in mind and manipulate it becomes less efficient. ○ Fluid intelligence: The capacity to reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations declines. ○ Sensory perception: Vision, hearing, and other senses become less acute, affecting how we process information. ○ Recall memory: Retrieving information from memory becomes more challenging. Week 4 - Emotion and Motivation - Chapter 10 What are primary and secondary emotions? Primary emotions are innate, evolutionarily adaptive, and universal across cultures. They include emotions such as: ○ Anger ○ Fear ○ Sadness ○ Disgust ○ Happiness ○ Surprise Secondary emotions are blends of primary emotions and tend to be more complex. They include: ○ Contempt ○ Remorse  ○ Embarrassment ○ Guilt ○ Jealousy What is the circumplex model of emotion? The circumplex model is a graphical representation of emotions arranged in a circular space. It classifies emotions along two dimensions: ○ Valence: How positive or negative the emotion is. ○ Arousal: The level of physiological activation associated with the emotion. What are the major theories of emotion (and their names)? James-Lange theory: Proposes that our experience of emotion is a result of our physiological responses to a stimulus. In other words, we feel afraid because our heart is racing, not the other way around. Cannon-Bard theory: Suggests that physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion occur simultaneously and independently. The brain receives sensory information about a stimulus and sends signals to the body to trigger physiological changes, while also sending signals to the cortex to generate the feeling of emotion. Schachter-Singer theory (two-factor theory): Posits that emotion is the result of both physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When we experience physiological arousal, we look to our environment for cues to help us label and interpret the arousal as a specific emotion. How are they different from one another? James-Lange: Physiological response precedes emotional experience. Cannon-Bard: Physiological response and emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently. Schachter-Singer: Physiological response is interpreted in light of the situation to produce emotional experience. What did Ekman’s theories contribute to our understanding of emotion? Paul Ekman proposed that certain basic emotions are universal across cultures, challenging the idea that emotions are solely learned. He identified six basic emotions: anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, and surprise. Ekman argued that these emotions are innate and evolutionarily adaptive, serving specific survival functions. He conducted research in remote cultures with limited exposure to Western culture and found that people could reliably identify these basic emotions in photographs of facial expressions, suggesting a biological basis for emotional expression. However, Ekman acknowledged the role of cultural display rules in influencing how emotions are expressed in different societies. How does emotion serve decision making? Emotions play a significant role in decision-making: ○ Anticipating future emotional states: We often make decisions based on how we think we will feel in the future. The anticipation of positive or negative emotions can guide our choices. ○ Emotions as heuristics: In complex situations, we may rely on our gut feelings or emotional intuition to make quick decisions. This is known as using emotions as heuristics, or mental shortcuts. ○ Affect-as-information theory: This theory suggests that we use our current moods and feelings as a source of information when making judgments and appraisals, even if we’re unaware of the source of those moods. ○ Risk judgments: Our emotions can influence how we perceive and evaluate risk, leading us to make riskier or more cautious decisions depending on our emotional state. What are some differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? Intrinsic motivation: Comes from the inherent satisfaction and enjoyment of an activity itself. It is driven by internal factors like curiosity, interest, and the challenge of the task. Extrinsic motivation: Stems from external rewards or incentives, such as money, praise, or grades. People engage in the activity to achieve a desired outcome rather than for the inherent pleasure of the task. Which one is better for motivating behavior in the long run? Intrinsic motivation tends to be more sustainable and lead to higher levels of engagement, creativity, and well-being in the long run. Research suggests that when people are intrinsically motivated, they are more likely to: ○ Persist at tasks even when facing challenges. ○ Engage in creative problem-solving. ○ Experience greater satisfaction and enjoyment. ○ Develop a deeper understanding of the material. Extrinsic motivation can be effective in the short term, but it can sometimes undermine intrinsic motivation. If people feel that they are only engaging in an activity for the reward, their enjoyment and interest in the task itself may decline. What is self-determination theory? Self-determination theory suggests that people are motivated to grow and change and that this motivation is influenced by the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. What factors make things feel more or less self-determined? Three key factors influence self-determination:  ○ Autonomy: Feeling a sense of choice and control over one's actions. Activities feel more self-determined when individuals can make choices and are not coerced. ○ Competence: Feeling capable and effective in performing an activity. Activities that match an individual's skills and provide opportunities for growth and mastery enhance feelings of competence. ○ Relatedness: Feeling connected to others and experiencing a sense of belonging. Activities that involve positive social interactions and support can enhance feelings of relatedness. What are implementations intentions? Implementation intentions are specific, if-then plans that help bridge the gap between goals and actions. They involve: ○ Identifying a specific situation or cue. ○ Specifying a desired behavior that will be performed in response to that situation. How do they help with goal attainment? Implementation intentions help with goal attainment in several ways: ○ Reduced reliance on self-control: By pre-planning how to respond in specific situations, we reduce the need to rely on willpower in the moment. ○ Improved attention and memory: Implementation intentions can help us become more attuned to relevant opportunities to act on our goals. ○ Making actions more automatic: By repeatedly linking a specific situation to a desired behavior, we can make the action more habitual and automatic. What is the need to belong? The need to belong is a fundamental human motivation to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships. It is considered a basic human need, similar to the need for food and water. Social emotions like guilt and embarrassment likely evolved as ways to regulate behavior and maintain social bonds, contributing to the need to belong.