Psychology 110 PDF

PSYCHOLOG Y 110 BIG IDEAS  History of Psychology  Biological Factors in Psychology  Emotions  Consciousness  Learning and Intelligence  Society and Culture  Personal Development  Psychological Disorders  Research Methods  Careers in Psychology 2 THE...

PSYCHOLOG Y 110 BIG IDEAS  History of Psychology  Biological Factors in Psychology  Emotions  Consciousness  Learning and Intelligence  Society and Culture  Personal Development  Psychological Disorders  Research Methods  Careers in Psychology 2 THE WORD “PSYCHOLOGY” COMES FROM THE GREEK WORDS “PSYCHE,” MEANING LIFE, AND “LOGOS,” MEANING EXPLANATION. PSYCHOLOGY IS A POPULAR MAJOR FOR STUDENTS, A POPULAR TOPIC IN THE PUBLIC MEDIA, AND A PART OF OUR EVERYDAY LIVES. PSYCHOLOGY IS THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF MIND AND BEHAVIOR. Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. 4 MIND The mind is the totality of psychological phenomena and capacities, including:  CONSCIOUSNESS (or your awareness of being a “thing” that’s having an experience)  THOUGHT (the ability to reason, judge, form concepts, etc.)  SENSATION  PERCEPTION (how we interpret our sensations)  MOOD  MOTIVATION 5  BEHAVIOUR PHILOSOPHY PHYSIOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY It is around the 1870’s when psychology emerges as its own scientific discipline. TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT STRUCTURALISM FUNCTIONALISM 7  RISE OF BEHAVIORISM BEHAVIOUR refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism. BEHAVIORISM is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should only study observable behavior. Appeared in early 1900’s; founded by John B. Watson. Watson proposed abandoning the study of consciousness altogether and focusing exclusively on behaviors that can be observed. Internal mental processes were private events and not verifiable. When it comes to NATURE vs NURTURE, Watson maintained that behaviour is governed primarily by environment. He downplayed the importance of the hereditary. 8 SIGMUND FREUD (1856- 1939) Freud was trying to treat mental disorders (irrational fears, obsessions, and anxieties) with what he called PSYCHOANALYSIS According to Freud there is an UNCONSCIOUS part of the mind which contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are below conscious awareness but which nonetheless exert a great influence on behaviour. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by looking at the unconscious determinants of behaviour. 9 FREUD IMAGINED THE MIND IN TERMS OF AN ICEBERG. 10 11  FREUD ALSO BELIEVED IDEAS SURROUNDING SEX THESE IDEAS WERE PARTICULARLY HARD TO ACCEPT IN THE 1920’S, WHEN THE TOPIC AND SEXUALITY HAD OF SEXUALITY WAS CONSIDERED MORE GREAT INFLUNCE ON TABOO, AND SO PSYCHOANALYSIS WAS OUR MINDS AND INITIALLY MET WITH RESISTANCE. BEHAVIOUR. BY THE 1940’S, PSYCHOANALYSIS HAD ACHIEVED A GREAT DEAL OF STATUS AND BECOME “MAINSTREAM” IN PSYCHOLOGY AND IN SOCIETY TO SOME DEGREE. HUMANISM By the 1950’s, behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory Humanism: is a had become the most theoretical orientation influential schools of that emphasizes the thought in psychology. unique qualities of Some criticized these humans, especially their approaches as freedom and their “dehumanizing” in that potential for personal they failed to recognize growth. the unique qualities of human behaviour. 13 HUMANISTS MIGHT SAY… They take an optimistic view of Carl Rogers (1902-1987) and human nature. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) said human behavior is governed by a People are more than pawns of their person’s self-concept or individual animal nature and environmental sense of self. circumstances. Humans are fundamentally different from animals, and so animal research Said people have a basic need to has little relevance to understanding evolve as individuals and to fulfill human behaviour. their potentials. Thwarting these human needs leads to psychological disturbances. 14 “IT SEEMS TO ME THAT AT THE BOTTOM EACH PERSON IS ASKING, “WHO AM I, REALLY? HOW CAN I GET IN TOUCH WITH THIS REAL SELF, UNDERLYING ALL MY SURFACE BEHAVIOR? HOW CAN I BECOME MYSELF?” - CARL ROGERS 15 ABRAHAM MASLOW’ S HIERARCH Y OF NEEDS 16  APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY Psychology comes of age as a profession in the 1950’s. Highly practical. Psychologists provide professional services to the public. Mental testing of military recruits in WW1 Intelligence testing to determine best fit for soldiers. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY: the branch of psychology concerned with everyday, practical problems. 17 CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY: is the branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders. Initially not as popular of a profession in psychology. With the demands of WW2 on people’s mental health, MANY psychologists are pulled from theoretical studies and research labs to clinical settings where their job becomes treatment. Clinical psychology as a profession grows, other branches of psychology begin to grow as professions as well. Today, the majority of psychologists devote at least some of their time to providing professional services. 18 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY COGNITION: refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge (cognition involves “thinking”). The dominance of behaviorism discouraged the study of “non-observable” mental processes. During the 50’s and 60’s, however, this began to change and new emphasis and 19 study was placed on 20  THE NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURONS Neurons are the individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information. PARTS OF A NEURON DENDRITES: receive signals from other neuron cells. CELL BODY: contains the cell nucleus. NUCLEUS: contains the genetic material of the neuron cell. PARTS OF A NEURON AXON: conducts electrical impulses along the neuron cell. MYELIN SHEATH: insulates the axon to protect the neuron and accelerate impulses. AXON TERMINAL: transmits electrical & chemical signals to other neuron and effector cells. SYNAPS E In the central nervous system, a neural impulse functions as a signal from the neuron to other cells. A SYNAPSE is a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another. 26 SYNAPTIC CLEFT Neurons do not actually touch one another. There is a microscopic gap, called a SYNAPTIC CLEFT between the end of one neuron and the beginning of the next. SO, the signal must “JUMP” this gap to permit neurons to communicate. 27 SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION The arrival of an impulse (or “action potential”) at the end of one neuron (the axon’s terminal buttons) triggers the release of chemicals that transmit information These chemicals are known as across the synaptic gap NEUROTRANSMITTERS. 28 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM is made up of all the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. The CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) the portion that lies within the skull and spinal column and is comprised of the brain and spinal cord. THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The peripheral nervous system can be subdivided into two sections: SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Your SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Your AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM involves things you can consciously works without you thinking about it, sense and do. running the behind-the-scenes processes that keep you alive. Made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and Controls automatic functions that sensory receptors. people don’t have to think about to control (heart rate, digestion, The SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM lets perspiration). you feel the world and move around in it. Think AUTO = automatic Think SOMA = body AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The autonomic nervous system itself can be subdivided into two sections: SYMPATHETIC DIVISION PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION Mobilizes the body’s resources for Conserves bodily resources. emergencies. Activates processes that allow the Fight or Flight Response body to save and store energy. Slows digestive processes For example, some parasympathetic nerves slow heart rate, reduce blood Drains blood from the periphery (in pressure, and promote digestion. preparation for injury and bleeding) Sends signals to adrenal glands. THE BRAIN FRONTAL LOBE Decision-making, Problem-solving, Planning, Motor control, Personality, Emotions, Behaviour, Language processing (Broca’s area) PARIETAL LOBE Sensory processing, Navigation, Spatial orientation, Attention and focus, Processing sensory information from the body. TEMPORAL LOBE Hearing and auditory processing, Memory formation and retrieval, Language comprehension (Wernicke’s area), Emotional processing, Processing sensory information from the ears OCCIPITAL LOBE Visual processing, Recognizing shapes, colours, and patterns, Processing visual information from the eyes. CEREBELLUM Coordination and balance, Motor learning and memory, Regulation of movement and posture CEREBELLUM Coordination and balance, Motor learning and memory, Regulation of movement and posture THE HINDBRAIN The MEDULLA regulates unconscious but vital processes such as circulation, breathing, maintaining muscle tone, sneezing, coughing, and salivating. The PONS (literally “bridge”) includes a bridge of fibers which connect the brainstem to the cerebellum. The pons also contain cells involved with sleep and arousal. The CEREBELLUM (literally “little brain”) is critical to the coordination of movement and a sense of equilibrium (or balance). Commands for muscular movements come from other parts of the brain, but it is the CEREBELLUM that guides these actions. THE MIDBRAIN LIES BEHIND THE HINDBRAIN AND THE FOREBRAIN. Concerned with sensory processes and locating things in space. When a sound causes you to turn your head towards it, that’s the midbrain acting. THE FOREBRAIN THE LARGEST AND MOST COMPLEX REGION OF THE BRAIN, INCLUDING THE THALAMUS, HYPOTHALAMUS, LIMBIC SYSTEM, AND CEREBRUM. The THALAMUS is a structure through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex. THE HYPOTHALAMUS is a structure found near the base of the FOREBRAIN that’s involved in the regulation of basic biological needs. THE LIMBIC SYSTEM is a loosely connected network or structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and the deeper subcortical. Includes parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus, the HIPPOCAMPUS, AMYGDALA, and SEPTUM. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The endocrine system is made up of GLANDS that make hormones. HORMONES are the body's chemical messengers. They carry information and instructions from one set of cells to another. The endocrine (pronounced: EN- duh-krin) system influences almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. EMOTIONS 47 EMOTIONS DEFINITION: Emotion involves a TRANSLATION: subjective conscious Emotion involves how we experience think about and interpret accompanied by how we feel, how our bodily arousal and by body reacts to the characteristic overt emotion, and how we expressions. express or show that emotion. EMOTIONS THE COGNITIVE COMPONENT (HOW WE INTERPRET AND THINK ABOUT EMOTIONS) Emotion is a highly personal, subjective experience. A situation which may cause a great deal of emotion in one person may People report that emotions not trigger very intense feelings, or are potentially intense even the same feelings in another. internal feelings that Thus, the conscious experience of an sometimes seem to have a emotion includes an EVALUATIVE life of their own. ASPECT, meaning people Emotions happen to us, and characterize their emotions as some emotions involve pleasant or unpleasant. automatic reactions that are difficult to regulate, but some control is possible. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENT (HOW THE BODY REACTS TO AN EMOTION) Emotional processes are closely tied to physiological processes, but these THE PLAYERS interconnections are very complex. The autonomic nervous system (heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, “goose bumps”, fight- or-flight response, adrenal The biological basis of hormones). emotions involve many areas in the brain, many The limbic system (the amygdala— neurotransmitter systems, our “vigilance system”, and the the autonomic nervous hypothalamus. system, and the endocrine system. THE BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENT (HOW YOU EXPRESS AND SHOW YOUR EMOTIONS) People reveal their emotions through overt expressions such as frowns, DISPLAY RULES are norms smiles, clenched fists, etc. that regulate the appropriate expression of Emotions are expressed in emotions. They prescribe “body language” and when, how, and to whom nonverbal behaviour. people can show various emotions. These rules vary from culture to culture, as do attitudes. A variety of theories and conflicting models exist to explain the experience of emotion. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY The evolutionary theory of emotion suggests our emotions exist because they serve an adaptive role. Emotions motivate people to respond quickly to stimuli in the environment, which helps improve the chances of success and survival. Being able to interpret correctly the emotional displays of other people and animals allows you to respond correctly and avoid danger. 54  JAMES-LANGE THEORY According to the James- Lange theory of emotion, an external stimulus leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction depends upon how you interpret those physical reactions. CANNON-BARD THEORY The Cannon-Bard theory states that the lower part of the brain, also called the thalamus, controls your experience of emotion. At the same time, the higher part of the brain, also called the cortex, controls the expression of emotion. It is believed that these two parts of the brain react simultaneously. CONSCIOUSNESS Our awareness of our selves and our environment. CONSCIOUSNESS People experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. AWARENESS: The state or ability to perceive, feel, or be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns. In this context, it refers to the level of consciousness and cognitive function. WAKEFULNESS: is characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behaviour. SLEEP: is a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS Conscious Wakefulness: A state of being awake and aware of one’s surroundings, thoughts, and feelings. Drowsiness: A state of feeling sleepy or being on the verge of sleep. Light Sleep: A stage of sleep where the person is in a lighter state of sleep and can be awakened easily. Lucid Dreaming: A type of dreaming where the dreamer is aware that they are dreaming and may have some control over their dreams. REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement Sleep): A unique phase of sleep characterised by random rapid movement of the eyes, low muscle tone throughout the body, and the propensity of the sleeper to dream vividly. Deep Sleep: A stage of sleep characterised by slow brain waves and a lack of eye movement and muscle activity. It is a period of heavy sleep from which it is difficult to wake up. CONSCIOUSNESS Minimally Conscious State: A condition of severely altered consciousness but with some signs of self-awareness or awareness of one’s environment. Vegetative State: A condition where a person is awake but showing no signs of awareness. General Anaesthesia: A medically induced coma with loss of protective reflexes, resulting from the administration of one or more general anaesthetic agents. Coma: A state of deep unconsciousness in which a person fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light, or sound, lacks a normal wake-sleep cycle, and does not initiate voluntary actions. (See footnote below on medically-induced coma) COMA A COMA is a deep state of unconsciousness where an individual does not respond to external stimuli like light, sound, or pain in a normal way. It differs from sleep because the person cannot be woken. Comas are caused by an injury to the brain, which can be due to various reasons: severe head injury, stroke, brain tumour, drug or alcohol intoxication, or an underlying illness like diabetes or an infection. Coma durations can vary widely, from minutes to years. Some patients may regain full function, while others may sustain permanent brain damage or never regain consciousness). INSUFFICIENT SLEEP When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a SLEEP DEBT. A person with a sleep debt does not get sufficient sleep on a continuing basis. The consequences of sleep debt include decreased levels of alertness and mental efficiency. Many of us sleep less than 7-8 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt. If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are you may have sleep debt. INSUFFICIENT SLEEP Sleep debt and sleep deprivation have significant negative psychological and physiological consequences: -decreased mental alertness and cognitive functions -depression-like symptoms -obesity -increased blood pressure -increased levels of stress hormones -reduced immune functioning These effects can occur as a function of accumulated sleep debt or in response to more acute periods of sleep deprivation. HOW MUCH SLEEP DO WE NEED? EFFECTS OF INSUFFICIENT SLEEP STAGES OF SLEEP 75% of sleep is spent in the NREM stages. The majority spent in the N2 stage. A typical night's sleep consists of 4 to 5 sleep cycles The progression of sleep stages in the following order: N1, N2, N3, N2, REM. A complete sleep cycle takes roughly 90 to 110 minutes. ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 1. PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS Psychoactive drugs exert significant effects on the body, affecting both physical and psychological functions. Psychoactive drugs interact with the body’s neurotransmitter systems in complex ways, leading to various effects on consciousness and physiological states. STIMULANTS EXAMPLES EFFECT ON BODY EFFECT WHEN USED ADDICTING? Cocaine, Increased heart rate, Increased alertness, Yes Amphetamines blood pressure, body mild euphoria, (including some ADHD temperature decreased appetite in medications such as low doses. Adderall), High doses increase Methamphetamine, agitation, paranoia, MDMA (“Ecstasy” or can cause “Molly”) hallucinations. Some can cause heightened sensitivity to physical stimuli. High doses of MDMA can cause brain toxicity and death. SEDATIVE-HYPNOTICS (“DEPRESSANTS”) EXAMPLES EFFECT ON BODY EFFECT WHEN USED ADDICTING? Alcohol, Decreased heart rate, Low doses increase Yes Barbiturates (e.g., blood pressure relaxation, decrease secobarbital, inhibitions. pentobarbital), High doses can induce Benzodiazepines (e.g., sleep, cause motor Xanax) disturbance, memory loss, decreased respiratory function, and death. OPIATES EXAMPLES EFFECT ON BODY EFFECT WHEN USED ADDICTING? Opium, Decreased pain, pupil Pain relief, euphoria, Yes Heroin, dilation, decreased gut sleepiness. Fentanyl, motility, decreased High doses can cause Morphine, respiratory function. death due to Oxycodone, respiratory depression. Vicoden, Methadone, and other prescription pain relievers HALLUCINOGENS EXAMPLES EFFECT ON BODY EFFECT WHEN USED ADDICTING? Marijuana, Increased heart rate Mild to intense Yes Psilocybin (“magic” and blood pressure perceptual changes mushrooms) that may dissipate with high variability in LSD (“acid”), over time effects based on strain, Peyote, method of ingestion, Mescaline, and individual DMT, differences Dissociative anaesthetics including Ketamine and PCP 2. MEDITATION  MEDITATION MEDITATION is the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. Meditation can be practiced alone. Often, however, people wishing to learn to meditate receive some training in techniques to achieve a meditative state. Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus.  BENEFITS OF MEDITATION Reduced stress: Meditation can help clear away information overload and build skills to manage stress. Improved focus: Meditation can help improve attention span and mental clarity. Better sleep: Meditation can help you fall asleep faster and improve sleep quality. Reduced pain: Meditation can help reduce pain and improve emotion regulation. Lower blood pressure: Meditation can lower blood pressure and reduce strain on the heart and blood vessels. Reduced anxiety: Meditation can help reduce anxiety and other mental health issues. Reduced depression: Meditation can help reduce the occurrence of depression. Increased compassion: Meditation can help you understand yourself and increase positive feelings and actions toward others. 3. HYPNOSIS HYPNOSIS is a psychological phenomenon characterized by: heightened focus, reduced peripheral awareness, enhanced capacity to respond to suggestion, and extreme self-focus with minimal attention to external stimuli. Clinicians in therapeutic settings often employ relaxation and suggestion to influence a client’s thoughts and perceptions. There is a lack of strong evidence supporting hypnosis’s efficacy in the area of memory recall, but brain imaging studies confirm that hypnotic states induce global changes in brain function, showcasing its significant impact on the mind. It’s important to differentiate between hypnosis as a scientifically supported therapeutic technique and its depiction as entertainment. This distinction clarifies hypnosis’s real potential in clinical and research contexts. HYPNOSIS As a therapy, hypnotherapy has been shown to be very good at helping with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and is showing promise as an alternative to cognitive behavioural therapy for depression and psychosomatic disorders. Hypnosis works by carefully mixing attention and suggestibility. Empirical research supports the value of hypnosis in both psychological and medical interventions. Its study offers us insights into human consciousness, illustrating the many ways in which our minds can be influenced and healed. INTELLIGENCE 80 DEFINING INTELLIGENCE The concept of intelligence varies widely across the world and is heavily influenced by cultural values. Cultures may emphasize practical skills. Some place particular value on the ability to communicate and empathize with others. Some cultures value collective intelligence: the ability to contribute to group by working collaboratively and communicating effectively. Other cultures (e.g., Native Americans and people from Africa) particularly respect the elders in their community because they believe that wisdom comes from life experiences. Anglo-European/American cultures commonly emphasize cognitive abilities that are related to academic achievement, such as rapid information processing, memory, language skills, mathematical aptitude, and logical reasoning Western psychologists disagree on a single definition of intelligence. DEFINING INTELLIGENCE A psychological test is a standardized measure of a sample of a person’s behaviour. Most tests can be placed in one of two categories: mental ability tests and personality tests. Mental ability tests: intelligence tests, achievement tests, and aptitude tests. Personality tests: measure various aspects of personality (motives, interests, values, and attitudes. DEFINING INTELLIGENCE Intelligence is a general mental ability, while personal strengths and weaknesses are skills and actions that an individual can do well and areas that could use improvement. LEARNING REFLEXES VS INSTINCTS Reflexes are a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment. They tend to be simpler than instincts, involve the activity of specific body parts and systems (e.g., the knee-jerk reflex and the contraction of the pupil in bright light), and involve more primitive centres of the central nervous system (e.g., the spinal cord and the medulla) Instincts are innate behaviours that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as maturation and the change of seasons. They are more complex patterns of behaviour, involve movement of the organism as a whole (e.g., sexual activity and migration), and involve higher brain centres. LEARNING Unlike instincts and reflexes, LEARNED BEHAVIOURS involve change and experience; LEARNING is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge that results from experience. Associative learning occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment. You will see that associative learning is central to all three basic learning processes: classical conditioning tends to involve unconscious processes; operant conditioning tends to involve conscious processes; and observational learning adds social and cognitive layers to all the basic associative processes, both conscious and unconscious. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (ALSO KNOWN AS PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING) Organisms learn to associate events, or stimuli, that repeatedly happen together. Example: You might see a flash of lightning in the sky during a storm and then hear a loud boom of thunder. The sound of the thunder naturally makes you jump (because loud noises stimulate that reflex). Because the lightning reliably predicts the impending boom of thunder, you might begin to associate the two and later end up jumping when you see lightning before the sound of thunder even occurs. Researchers ask, “if one stimulus triggers a reflex, can we train a different stimulus to trigger that same reflex?” PAVLOV’S DOG In the 1890’s Ivan Pavlov's experiments demonstrated how a neutral stimulus (the bell being rung to announce feeding time) can become associated with a positive stimulus (the food itself) to create a conditioned response PHOBIAS A phobia is an anxiety disorder that causes an irrational, persistent, and excessive fear of an object, situation, or concept. Phobias are more intense than regular fears and can be debilitating. People with phobias may experience panic attacks when exposed to the source of their fear. OPERANT CONDITIONING In operant conditioning, an organism learns, again, to associate events: A behaviour and its consequence (be it REINFORCEMENT or PUNISHMENT). A pleasant consequence for a behaviour encourages MORE of that behaviour in the future. An unpleasant punishment for a behaviour deters that behaviour. REINFORCERS INCREASE THE CHANCES OF A BEHAVIOUR BEING REPEATED. PUNISHMENTS DECREASE THE CHANCES OF A BEHAVIOUR BEING REPEATED. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding. It increases the frequency of a behaviour when applied. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: Involves the termination of an unpleasant state following a desired response. Increases the frequency of a behaviour when removed. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: Involves adding something unpleasant immediately following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again. Aims to weaken the target behavior by associating it with an undesirable consequence. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT: Involves removing a desirable stimulus or something rewarding immediately following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening in the future. Aims to weaken the target behavior by taking away something the individual values or enjoys. REINFORCEMENT? OR PUNISHMENT? You get dessert because you finished your veggies. REINFORCEMENT? OR PUNISHMENT? You get dessert because you finished your veggies. Ask yourself: “Does this increase the behaviour (eating veggies)?” Yes? Then we are looking at REINFORCEMENT. But which type? Ask yourself, is the reward driving the behaviour getting something PLEASANT, or is the reward for the behaviour the removal of something UNPLEASANT? REINFORCEMENT? OR PUNISHMENT? You get dessert because you finished your veggies (PR) You receive a scolding for leaving your laundry on the floor. You lose the privilege of borrowing the car because you didn’t complete your chores. You buckle your seatbelt to stop the annoying REINFORCEMENT? OR PUNISHMENT? You get dessert because you finished your veggies (PR) You receive a scolding for leaving your laundry on the floor. (PP) You lose the privilege of borrowing the car because you didn’t complete your chores. (NP) You buckle your seatbelt to stop the annoying OPERANT CONDITIONING REMEMBER SKINNER? OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (OR SOCIAL LEARNING) Observational learning is a method of learning where people acquire new behaviors and skills by watching and imitating others. It's a type of social learning that involves paying attention to, retaining, and reproducing the actions of others.  THE BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT The Bobo doll experiment was a series of experiments conducted by psychologist Albert Bandura to test his social learning theory. The experiments involved showing children an adult model acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll, an inflatable toy that resembled a clown and was about the size of a prepubescent child. The children then imitated the adults' behavior by attacking the doll in the same way. The Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children learn from the actions of others, a concept known as observational learning. The experiment's findings support Bandura's social learning theory, which states that people learn from the actions and experiences of others. This theory has had a significant impact on the field of psychology. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS A mental disorder, also referred to as a mental illness, a mental health condition, or a psychiatric disability, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. Mental disorders are patterns of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life. These disorders create distress for the person experiencing the symptoms. PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a handbook that provides health care professionals with descriptions, symptoms, and other criteria for diagnosing mental disorders.  LIST OF CATEGORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Disruptive, Impulse Control and Conduct Neurodevelopmental Disorders Disorders Bipolar and Related Disorders Depressive Disorders Anxiety Disorders Substance Use and Addictive Disorders Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disord ers Neurocognitive Disorders Dissociative Disorders Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psyc hotic Disorders Somatic Symptom Disorders Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disor Feeding and Eating Disorders ders Sleep-Wake Disorders Personality Disorders  ANXIETY DISORDERS Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by significant and uncontrollable feelings of anxiety and fear such that a person's social, occupational, and personal functions are significantly impaired. (Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Specific phobias, Agoraphobia, Social Anxiety  DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS Depressive disorders include a number of conditions. They are all characterized by the presence of sad, empty, or irritable moods accompanied by physical and cognitive symptoms. They differ in terms of duration, timing, and causes. (Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder, Persistent Depressive Disorder) PERSONALITY DISORDERS Personality disorders are characterized by an enduring pattern of maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that can cause serious detriments to relationships and other life areas. (Antisocial Personality Disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, Narcissistic Personality Disorder, Schizotypal Personality Disorder, DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS Dissociative disorders are psychological disorders that involve a dissociation or interruption in aspects of consciousness, including identity and memory. (Dissociative Amnesia, Dissociative Identity Disorder, Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder)  TRAUMA AND STRESSOR-RELATED DISORDERS Trauma- and stressor-related disorders involve exposure to a stressful or traumatic event.9 These were previously grouped with anxiety disorders but are now considered a distinct category of disorders. (Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, Acute Stress Disorder, Reactive Attachment Disorder, Adjustment Disorder)  FEEDING AND EATING DISORDERS Eating disorders are characterized by obsessive concerns with weight and disruptive eating patterns that negatively impact physical and mental health. (Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, Rumination Disorder, Pica, Binge-Eating Disorder)  SUBSTANCE USE AND ADDICTION DISORDERS Substance-related disorders are those that involve the misuse of different substances such as cocaine, methamphetamine, opiates, and alcohol. These disorders may include substance-induced conditions that can result in many associated diagnoses including intoxication, withdrawal, or the emergence of psychosis, anxiety, and delirium. Examples of substance-related disorders include:  Alcohol-related disorders, Cannabis-related disorders, Inhalant-use disorders, Stimulant use disorder, Tobacco use disorder; also, Gambling Disorder NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS Neurodevelopmental disorders are those that are typically diagnosed during infancy, childhood, or adolescence. These psychological disorders include: Intellectual Development Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, ADHD, and Communication Disorders. SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM AND OTHER PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS Schizophrenia is a chronic psychiatric condition that affects a person’s thinking, feeling, and behavior. It is a complex, long-term condition that affects less than 1% of people in the United States. The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria specify that two or more symptoms of schizophrenia must be present for a period of at least one month. One symptom must be one of the following:  Delusions: Beliefs that conflict with reality  Hallucinations: Seeing or hearing things that aren't really there  Disorganized speech: Words that do not follow the rules of language and may be difficult or impossible to understand The second symptom may be one of the following:  Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior: Confused thinking or bizarre behavior or movements OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders is a category of psychiatric conditions that include: Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); Body-dysmorphic disorder; Hoarding disorder; Trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder); Excoriation disorder (skin-picking disorder); Substance/medication-induced obsessive-compulsive and related disorder; Obsessive-compulsive and related disorder due to another medical condition Each condition in this classification has its own set of diagnostic criteria. The obsessions and compulsions must also be time-consuming, taking up an hour or more per day, or cause significant distress or functional impairment. They must not be attributable to another medical condition or substance use and must not be better explained by another psychiatric condition such as generalized anxiety disorder. Treatments for OCD usually focus on a combination of therapy and medications. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) or a form of CBT known as exposure and response prevention (ERP) are commonly used. Antidepressants such as Anafranil (clomipramine) or Prozac (fluoxetine) may also be prescribed to manage symptoms. PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS OUTSIDE WESTERN IDEOLOGIES The widely used classification systems for psychological disorders are the: ICD-10 (Chapter V) International Classification of Diseases, 10th edition produced by the World Health Organization (WHO) and DSM-V Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5), produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Both systems list disorders thought to be distinct types, and in recent revisions the two systems have deliberately converged their codes so that their manuals are often broadly comparable, though differences remain. [ Other classification schemes, used more locally, include the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders. Manuals of limited use, by practitioners with alternative theoretical persuasions, include the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual. CHINESE CLASSIFICATION OF MENTAL DISORDERS The Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders (CCMD), published by the Chinese Society of Psychiatry (CSP), is a clinical guide used in China for the diagnosis of mental disorders. It is on its third version, the CCMD-3, written in Chinese and English. Very similar to the ICD-10, and is also influenced by the DSM-IV. Has a unique definition of some disorders, includes an additional 40 or so culturally-related diagnoses, and lacks certain conditions recognised in other parts of the world. SELF-DIAGNOSIS IN MENTAL HEALTH Self-diagnosis is the process of diagnosing, or identifying, medical conditions in oneself. It may be assisted by medical dictionaries, books, resources on the Internet, past personal experiences, or recognizing symptoms or medical signs of a condition that a family member previously had or currently has. SELF-DIAGNOSIS IN MENTAL HEALTH Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values. People display this bias when they select information that supports their views, ignoring contrary information, or when they interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing attitudes. The effect is strongest for desired outcomes, for emotionally charged issues, and for deeply entrenched beliefs. SELF-DIAGNOSIS IN MENTAL HEALTH What factors could contribute to people turning to self- diagnosis of their own mental health? What risks or problems might be involved in self- diagnosing? DANGERS OF SELF-DIAGNOSIS MISDIAGNOSIS: INCREASED ANXIETY: REINFORCING NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES: USING DIAGNOSIS TO EXCUSE HARM: MISSING SERIOUS MEDICAL DISORDER: OVER IDENTIFYING WITH A DIAGNOSIS: FAULTY DIAGNOSIS:  CASE STUDY 1 Bobby, a bright young man who earned a scholarship to Harvard, has begun hearing voices. The voices tell him that terrorists are searching for him and can use his thoughts as a tracking device. Bobby stops going to classes and spends most of his day walking in a park and shouting at 'the terrorists.' Bobby's roommate Toby returned from spring break to find the inside of the dorm room disheveled with papered with aluminum foil and Bobby hiding in the closet. When the Toby questions Bobby about his behavior, Bobby speaks in jumbled words about terrorist plots and vacuum cleaners. Unable to understand Bobby and fearing for his own safety, Toby calls Bobby's parents.  CASE STUDY 1 SCHIZOPHRENIA:  Delusions: Beliefs that conflict with reality  Hallucinations: Seeing or hearing things that aren't really there  Disorganized speech: Words that do not follow the rules of language and may be difficult or impossible to understand.  Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior: Confused thinking or bizarre behavior or movements  Negative symptoms: The inability to initiate plans, speak, express emotions, or feel pleasure Chronic and complex psychiatric condition that affects less than 1% of people. Affects a person’s thinking, feeling, and behavior. Multiple factors may play a role in the development of schizophrenia including genetics, brain chemistry, environmental factors, and substance use. No cure for schizophrenia, but treatments usually incorporate antipsychotic medications, psychotherapy, self- management, education, and social support.  Onset of schizophrenia is usually in the late teens or early 20s, with men usually showing symptoms earlier than women.  CASE STUDY 2 Jack, an office manager for an insurance company, is often late to work and has missed several days without explanation. Jack finally confides his problem to a co-worker--- Jack has become almost paralyzed with the fear that he has hit a pedestrian with his car. Jack becomes so upset by this thought that he has to pull over and check under his wheels to make sure he has not killed a person walking on the road or sidewalk. His fear and checking for bodies under his car is occurring 20 or 30 times during his drive to work, sometimes causing him to be hours late.  CASE STUDY 2 OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER:  Obsessions: Defined as recurrent, persistent thoughts, impulses, and urges that lead to distress or anxiety  Compulsions: Repetitive and excessive behaviors that the individual feels that they must perform to reduce anxiety or to prevent some dreaded outcome from occurring The obsessions and compulsions must also be time-consuming, taking up an hour or more per day, or cause significant distress or functional impairment. They must not be attributable to another medical condition or substance use and must not be better explained by another psychiatric condition such as generalized anxiety disorder. Treatments for OCD usually focus on a combination of therapy and medications.  CASE STUDY 3 Ella is a quiet, studious young woman who attends a private Methodist college, hopes to become a doctor. For most of her life, Ella has had blackouts which resulted in 'lost' days or weeks—although her family did not seem to notice other than to comment on Ella's 'moodiness'. After a blackout, Ella often found herself in trouble for misdemeanors and behaviors she has no memories of committing. Since leaving home to attend college, the blackouts have increased. She is missing classes and often wakes up in bars or clubs, dressed in clothing she does not recognize. Strangers call her 'Suzie' and a leave bizarre telephone messages that she does not understand.  CASE STUDY 3 DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER: (POSSIBLY DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER) Formerly known as multiple personality disorder, dissociative identity disorder involves the presence of two or more different identities or personalities in one person. Each of these personalities has its own way of perceiving and interacting with the environment. People with this disorder experience changes in behavior, memory, perception, emotional response, and consciousness.  CASE STUDY 4 Nancy J. is a sixteen year old High School junior. For the last three months, Nancy has insisted that she hates school and often refuses to get up in the mornings. She often sleeps most of the day and refuses to talk to her friends. Although Nancy was once an active, friendly young woman, she has dropped out of all clubs and groups, including her church group. When her parents insist that she attends school, Nancy spends most of the day near tears. Her grades are, of course, falling rapidly. CASE STUDY 5 Hannah, age 55, was in a major car accident 20 years ago during a cross country trip. Ever since, she has been terrified to drive on major highways. Although she does drive, she goes to great lengths to travel only on back roads and scenic routes. She is able to go where she wants but it often takes her much longer to get there than it should. CASE STUDY 6 After weeks of feeling too depressed to work or take care of her family, Jeannie has begun to give away all of her possession and says she is planning to move to Hawaii so that she can "save the world." Her husband reports that she has hardly been sleeping at all but seems full of energy. He stated that she appeared to be "in a frenzy" for the last few days. When you speak to Jeannie, you notice that she talks rapidly and has difficulty sitting still.