STS - Edited Module PDF

Chapter 1 Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations Changed the Course of Science and Technology ...

Chapter 1 Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations Changed the Course of Science and Technology Introduction This section presents an overview of how science and technology evolved from ancient times to the present. It shows how man was able to develop crude technological tools and eventually improve them through time to make his way of living more convenient and the society more progressive. Intended Learning Outcomes: 1. Discuss the interactions between science and technology and society throughout history 2. Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and the environment 3. Identify the paradigm shifts in history A. General Concepts What is Science, Technology and Society? Science and Technology and Society is an interdisciplinary course designed to examine the ways that science and technology shape, and are shaped by, our society, politics, and culture. It explores the conditions under which production, distribution and utilization of scientific knowledge and technological systems occur;; and the effects of these processes upon the entire society. History and philosophy of science and technology, sociology and anthropology are greatly interconnected to the discussion of STS because these are the very factors that molded the development of science and technology as we know it today. Science is an evolving body of knowledge that is based on theoretical expositions and experimental and empirical activities that generates universal truths. Technology, on the other hand is the application of science and creation of systems, processes and objects designed to help humans in their daily activities. The development of science and technology has brought immense progress in society and men. Scientific knowledge and technology influences individuals and society. Better understanding of science and technology is essential to know the unique attributes of each enterprise, then addressing their implications for society. Society is the sum total of our interactions as humans, including the interactions that we engage in to understand the nature of things and to create things. It is also defined as a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations (Science Daily). Science, technology and society is important to the public because it helps address issues and problems that are of concern to the general population. Scientific and technological principles have been and continue to be applied to solve problems that people experience in their day-to-day aspects of living. But scientific findings must be applied at the right scales. The impact of technological breakthroughs on people, society and the environment must be critically assessed to preserve its value. Figure 1 The Interrelationship of science, technology and society Source: Ihueze et al., 2015. researchgate.net A lot of our problems in modern society involve not only technology but also human values, social organization, environmental concerns, economic resources, political decisions, and a myriad of other factors. These things sits at the interface between the three fields and can also be solved (if they can be solved at all) by the application of scientific knowledge, technical expertise, social understanding, and humane compassion. In the past, science is learned as an independent study from other fields. It focuses on the scientific methods, natural processes and understanding nature. But in the current global scenario, science is studied holistically, often in an interdisciplinary method, emphasizing systems rather than processes, synthesis more than analysis and predicting nature’s behavior in order to have useful application in solving contemporary problems. 2 The scientific data that have built up a considerable base of knowledge led to a vast portfolio of useful technologies, especially in the 21st century, to solve many of the problems now facing humankind (UNESCO, 1999). To solve our contemporary problems, science needs to become more multidisciplinary and its practitioners should continue to promote cooperation and integration between the social and natural sciences. A holistic approach also demands that science draw on the contributions of the humanities (such as history and philosophy), local knowledge systems, aboriginal wisdom, and the wide variety of cultural values. The influence of science and technology on people’s lives is expanding. While recent benefits to humanity are unparalleled in the history of the human species, in some instances the impact has been harmful or the long-term effects give causes for serious concerns. A considerable measure of public mistrust of science and fear of technology exists today. In part, this stems from the belief by some individuals and communities that they will be the ones to suffer the indirect negative consequences of technical innovations introduced to benefit only a privileged minority. The power of science to bring about change places a duty on scientists to proceed with great caution both in what they do and what they say. Scientists should reflect on the social consequences of the technological applications or dissemination of partial information of their work and explain to the public and policy makers alike the degree of scientific uncertainty or incompleteness in their findings. At the same time, though, they should not hesitate to fully exploit the predictive power of science, duly qualified, to help people cope with environmental change, especially in cases of direct threats like natural disasters or water shortages. The Role of Science and Technology 1. alter the way people live, connect, communicate and transact, with profound effects on economic development;; 2. key drivers to development, because technological and scientific revolutions underpin economic advances, improvements in health systems, education and infrastructure;; 3. The technological revolutions of the 21st century are emerging from entirely new sectors, based on micro-processors, tele-communications, bio-technology and nano-technology. Products are transforming business practices across the economy, as well as the lives of all who have access to their effects. The most remarkable breakthroughs will come from the interaction of insights and applications arising when these technologies converge. 4. have the power to better the lives of poor people in developing countries 5. differentiators between countries that are able to tackle poverty effectively by growing and developing their economies, and those that are not. 6. engine of growth 7. interventions for cognitive enhancement, proton cancer therapy and genetic engineering 3 Reflective Question: With the whole world suffering from CoViD-19 pandemic, discuss the interplay between science, technology and society in mitigating this problem. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 4 B. Historical Antecedents in the World Just like with any other discipline, the best way to truly understand where we are in science today is to look back at what happened in the past. The history of science can teach us many lessons about the way scientists think and understand the world around us. A historical perspective will make us appreciate more what science really is. From Ancient Times to 600 BC Science during ancient times involved practical arts like healing practices and metal tradition. Some of the earliest records from history indicate that 3,000 years before Christ, the ancient Egyptians already had reasonably sophisticated medical practices. Sometime around 2650 B.C., for example, a man named Imhotep was renowned for his knowledge of medicine. Most historians agree that the heart of Egyptian medicine was trial and error. Egyptian doctors would try one remedy, and if it worked, they would continue to use it. If a remedy they tried didn’t work, the patient might die, but at least the doctors learned that next time they should try a different remedy. Despite the fact that such practices sound primitive, the results were, sometimes, surprisingly effective. The Egyptian medicine was considered advanced as compared with other ancient nations because of one of the early inventions of Egyptian civilization – the papyrus. The papyrus is an ancient form of paper, made from the papyrus plant, a reed which grows in the marshy areas around the Nile river. As early as 3,000 years before Christ, Egyptians took thin slices of the stem of the papyrus plant, laid them crosswise on top of each other, moistened them, and then pressed and dried them. The result was a form of paper that was reasonably easy to write on and store. The invention of this ancient form of paper revolutionized the way information was transmitted from person to person and generation to generation. Before papyrus, Egyptians, Sumerians, and other races wrote on clay tablets or smooth rocks. This was a time-consuming process, and the products were not easy to store or transport. When Egyptians began writing on papyrus, all of that changed. Papyrus was easy to roll into scrolls. Thus, Egyptian writings became easy to store and transport. As a result, the knowledge of one scholar could be easily transferred to other scholars. As this accumulated knowledge was passed down from generation to generation, Egyptian medicine became the most respected form of medicine in the known world. Papyrus was used as a writing material as early as 3,000 BC in ancient Egypt, and continued to be used to some extent until around 1100 AD. Although the Egyptians were renowned for their medicine and for papyrus, other cultures had impressive inventions of their own. Around the time that papyrus was first being used in Egypt, the Mesopotamians were making pottery using the first known potter’s wheel. Not long after, horse-drawn chariots were being used. 5 As early as 1,000 years before Christ, the Chinese were using compasses to aid themselves in their travels. The ancient world, then, was filled with inventions that, although they sound commonplace today, revolutionized life during those times. These inventions are history’s first inklings of science. The Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD) The ancient Greeks were the early thinkers and as far as historians can tell, they were the first true scientists. They collected facts and observations and then used those observations to explain the natural world. Although many cultures like the ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Chinese had collected observations and facts, they had not tried to use those facts to develop explanations of the world around them. Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity becomes tangible from the 6th century BC in pre-Socratic philosophy (Thales, Pythagoras). In circa 385 BC, Plato founded the Academy. With Plato's student Aristotle begins the "scientific revolution" of the Hellenistic period culminating in the 3rd to 2nd centuries with scholars such as Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, Hipparchus and Archimedes. This period produced substantial advances in scientific knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy;; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its cause;; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. The scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. This was passed on from ancient Greek philosophers to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day. Islamic Golden Age The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began. Science and 6 technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions. Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Scientific inquiry was practiced in other subjects like alchemy and chemistry, botany and agronomy, geography and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacology, physics and zoology. Islamic science was characterized by having practical purposes as well as the goal of understanding. Astronomy was useful in determining the Qibla, which is the direction in which to pray, botany is applied in agriculture and geography enabled scientists to make accurate maps. Mathematics also flourished during the Islamic Golden Age with the works of Al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna and Jamshid al Kashi that led to advanced in algebra, trigonometry, geometry and Arabic numerals. There was also great progress in medicine during this period. Al-Biruni, and Avicenna produced books that contain descriptions of the preparation of hundred of drugs made from medicinal plants and chemical compounds. Islamic doctors describe diseases like smallpox and measles, and challenged classical Greek medical knowledge. Likewise, Islamic physicists such as Ibn Al-Haytham, Al-Biruni and others studied optics and mechanics as well as astronomy, and criticized Aristotle’s view of motion. The significance of medieval Islamic science has been debated by historians. The traditionalist view holds that it lacked innovation, and was mainly important for handing on ancient knowledge to medieval Europe. The revisionist view holds that it constituted a scientific revolution. Whatever the case, science flourished across a wide area around the Mediterranean and further afield, for several centuries, in a wide range of institutions. Science and Technology in Ancient China Ancient Chinese scientists and engineers made significant scientific innovations, findings and technological advances across various scientific disciplines including the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, military technology, mathematics, geology and astronomy. Ancient China gave the world the Four Great Inventions that include the compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing. These were considered as among the most important technological advances and were only known to Europe 7 1000 years later or during the end of the Middle ages. These four inventions had a profound impact on the development of civilization throughout the world. However, some modern Chinese scholars have opined that other Chinese inventions were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact on Chinese civilization – the Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the technological interaction between East and West. As stated by Karl Marx, "Gunpowder, the compass, and the printing press were the three great inventions which ushered in bourgeois society. Gunpowder blew up the knightly class, the compass discovered the world market and found the colonies, and the printing press was the instrument of Protestantism and the regeneration of science in general;; the most powerful lever for creating the intellectual prerequisites.” The Renaissance (1300 AD – 1600AD) The 14th century was the beginning of the cultural movement of the Renaissance, which was considered by many as the Golden Age of Science. During the Renaissance period, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, anatomy, manufacturing, and engineering. The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. Marie Boas Hall coined the term Scientific Renaissance to designate the early phase of the Scientific Revolution, 1450–1630. More recently, Peter Dear has argued for a two-phase model of early modern science: a Scientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients;; and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation. But this initial period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness. There were no new developments in physics or astronomy, and the reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Renaissance philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion. At the same time, Renaissance humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. Science would only be revived later, with such figures as Copernicus, Gerolamo Cardano, Francis Bacon, and Descartes. The most important technological advance of all in this period was the development of printing, with movable metal type, about the mid-15th century in Germany. Johannes Gutenberg is usually called its inventor, but in fact many people and many steps were involved. Block printing on wood came to the West 8 from China between 1250 and 1350, papermaking came from China by way of the Arabs to 12th-century Spain, whereas the Flemish technique of oil painting was the origin of the new printers’ ink. Three men of Mainz—Gutenberg and his contemporaries Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer—seem to have taken the final steps, casting metal type and locking it into a wooden press. The invention spread like the wind, reaching Italy by 1467, Hungary and Poland in the 1470s, and Scandinavia by 1483. By 1500 the presses of Europe had produced some six million books. Without the printing press it is impossible to conceive that the Reformation would have ever been more than a monkish quarrel or that the rise of a new science, which was a cooperative effort of an international community, would have occurred at all. In short, the development of printing amounted to a communications revolution of the order of the invention of writing;; and, like that prehistoric discovery, it transformed the conditions of life. The communications revolution immeasurably enhanced human opportunities for enlightenment and pleasure on one hand and created previously undreamed-of possibilities for manipulation and control on the other. The consideration of such contradictory effects may guard us against a ready acceptance of triumphalist conceptions of the Renaissance or of historical change in general. The Enlightenment Period (1715 A.D. to 1789 A.D.) The Enlightenment Period or the Age of Reason was characterized by radical reorientation in science, which emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith. This period produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of its decline. The Enlightenment ultimately gave way to 19th-century Romanticism. The Enlightenment’s important 17th-century precursors included the key natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution, including Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Its roots are usually traced to 1680s England, where in the span of three years Isaac Newton published his “Principia Mathematica” (1686) and John Locke his “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1689)—two works that provided the scientific, mathematical and philosophical toolkit for the Enlightenment’s major advances. In this era dedicated to human progress, the advancement of the natural sciences is regarded as the main exemplification of, and fuel for, such progress. Isaac Newton’s epochal accomplishment in his Principia Mathematica consists in the comprehension of a diversity of physical phenomena – in particular the motions of heavenly bodies, together with the motions of sublunary bodies – in few relatively simple, universally applicable, mathematical laws, was a great stimulus to the intellectual activity of the eighteenth century and served as a model and inspiration for the researches of a number of Enlightenment thinkers. Newton’s 9 system strongly encourages the Enlightenment conception of nature as an orderly domain governed by strict mathematical-dynamical laws and the conception of ourselves as capable of knowing those laws and of plumbing the secrets of nature through the exercise of our unaided faculties. – The conception of nature, and of how we know it, changes significantly with the rise of modern science. It belongs centrally to the agenda of Enlightenment philosophy to contribute to the new knowledge of nature, and to provide a metaphysical framework within which to place and interpret this new knowledge. Industrial Revolution (1760 - 1840) The rise of modern science and the Industrial Revolution were closely connected. It is difficult to show any direct effect of scientific discoveries upon the rise of the textile or even the metallurgical industry in Great Britain, the home of the Industrial Revolution, but there certainly was a similarity in attitude to be found in science and nascent industry. Close observation and careful generalization leading to practical utilization were characteristic of both industrialists and experimentalists alike in the 18th century. What science offered in the 18th century was the hope that careful observation and experimentation might improve industrial production significantly. The science of metallurgy permitted the tailoring of alloy steels to industrial specifications, the science of chemistry permitted the creation of new substances, like the aniline dyes, of fundamental industrial importance, and that electricity and magnetism were harnessed in the electric dynamo and motor. Until that period science probably profited more from industry than the other way around. It was the steam engine that posed the problems that led, by way of a search for a theory of steam power, to the creation of thermodynamics. Most importantly, as industry required ever more complicated and intricate machinery, the machine tool industry developed to provide it and, in the process, made possible the construction of ever more delicate and refined instruments for science. As science turned from the everyday world to the worlds of atoms and molecules, electric currents and magnetic fields, microbes and viruses, and nebulae and galaxies, instruments increasingly provided the sole contact with phenomena. A large refracting telescope driven by intricate clockwork to observe nebulae was as much a product of 19th-century heavy industry as were the steam locomotive and the steamship. The Industrial Revolution had one further important effect on the development of modern science. The prospect of applying science to the problems of industry served to stimulate public support for science. Governments, in varying degrees and at different rates, began supporting science even more directly, by making financial grants to scientists, by founding research institutes, and by bestowing honors and official posts on great scientists. By the end of the 19th century the natural philosopher following his private interests had given way to the professional scientist with a public role. 10 The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were technological, socioeconomic, and cultural. The technological changes included the following: (1) the use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel, (2) the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine, (3) the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy, (4) a new organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed increased division of labor and specialization of function, (5) important developments in transportation and communication, including the steam locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and (6) the increasing application of science to industry. These technological changes made possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass production of manufactured goods. 20th Century Science: Physics and Information Age The 20th century was an important century in the history of the sciences. It generated entirely novel insights in all areas of research – often thanks to the introduction of novel research methods – and it established an intimate connection between science and technology. With this connection, science is dealing now with the complexity of the real world. The scientific legacy of the 20th Century gave proof of the revolutionary changes in many areas of the sciences – in particular, physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, neurosciences and earth and environmental sciences – and how they contributed to these changes. The epistemological and methodological questions as well as the interdisciplinary aspects become ever more important in scientific research. The common denominator of the sciences is the notion of discovery, and discovery is an organised mode of observing nature. Twentieth century cosmology greatly improved our knowledge of the place that man and his planet occupy in the universe. The “wonder” that Plato and Aristotle put at the origin of thought, today extends to science itself. Questions now arise on the origin and on the whole, its history and its laws. The start of the 20th century was strongly marked by Einstein’s formulation of the theory of relativity (1905) including the unifying concept of energy related to mass and the speed of light: E = mc2 . He made many more contributions, notably to statistical mechanics, and he provided a great inspiring influence for many other physicists. In the second half of the 20th century several branches of science continued to make great progress and we here list physics, chemistry, biology, geology and astronomy. For example, there was the development of the semi-conductor 11 (transistor), followed by developments in nanotechnology that led to great advances in information technology. In nuclear physics the discovery of sub-atomic particles provided a great leap forward. Modern physics grew in the 20th into a primary discipline contributing to all today’s basic natural sciences, astronomy, chemistry and biology. Although it took a hundred years since Clausius’s time for it to be fully recognized that all biological processes have also to obey the laws of thermodynamics, the border between the origin of the living and the non-living worlds has now at last been blurred. The year 1953 was an important landmark for biology with the description by Crick and Watson of the structure of DNA, the carrier of genetic information (Rosch, 2014). Physics has enabled us to understand the basic components of matter and we are well on the way to an ever more consistent and unitary understanding of the entire structure of natural reality, which we discover as being made up not only of matter and energy but also of information and forms. The latest developments in astrophysics are also particularly surprising: they further confirm the great unity of physics that manifests itself clearly at each new stage of the understanding of reality. Biology too, with the discovery of DNA and the development of genetics, allows us to penetrate the fundamental processes of life and to intervene in the gene pool of certain organisms by imitating some of these natural mechanisms. Information technology and the digital processing of information have transformed our lifestyle and our way of communicating in the space of very few decades. The 20th century has seen medicine find a cure for many life-threatening diseases and the beginning of organ transplants. It is impossible to list the many other discoveries and results that have broadened our knowledge and influenced our world outlook: from progress in computational logic to the chemistry of materials, from the neurosciences to robotics. Scientific research not only gives expression to the strength of rationality in explaining the world and the way in which this is done. The application of scientific knowledge can induce changes of environmental and thus living conditions. It is these aspects, the interrelations between scientific progress and social development, which together with insights into the epistemological structure and the ethical implications of science play an important role in the life and the work of scientists. Science and Technology in the Fourth Industrial Revolution The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a way of describing the blurring of boundaries between the physical, digital, and biological worlds. It’s a fusion of advances in artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), 3D printing, genetic engineering, quantum computing, and other technologies. It’s the collective force behind many products and services that are fast becoming 12 indispensable to modern life. Think GPS systems that suggest the fastest route to a destination, voice-activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri, personalized Netflix recommendations, and Facebook’s ability to recognize your face and tag you in a friend’s photo (https://www.salesforce.com/blog/2018/12/what-is-the- fourth-industrial-revolution-4IR.html). As a result of this perfect storm of technologies, the Fourth Industrial Revolution is paving the way for transformative changes in the way we live and radically disrupting almost every business sector. It’s all happening at an unprecedented, whirlwind pace. The easiest way to understand the Fourth Industrial Revolution is to focus on the technologies driving it. Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computers that can “think” like humans — recognizing complex patterns, processing information, drawing conclusions, and making recommendations. AI is used in many ways, from spotting patterns in huge piles of unstructured data to powering the autocorrect on your phone. New computational technologies are making computers smarter. They enable computers to process vast amounts of data faster than ever before, while the advent of the “cloud” has allowed businesses to safely store and access their information from anywhere with internet access, at any time. Quantum computing technologies now in development will eventually make computers millions of times more powerful. These computers will have the potential to supercharge AI, create highly complex data models in seconds, and speed up the discovery of new materials. Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a VR headset) that simulate the real world, while augmented reality merges the digital and physical worlds. Examples include L’Oréal’s makeup app, which allows users to digitally experiment with makeup products before buying them, and the Google Translate phone app, which allows users to scan and instantly translate street signs, menus, and other text. Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop new technologies and products for a range of uses, including developing new pharmaceuticals and materials, more efficient industrial manufacturing processes, and cleaner, more efficient energy sources. Researchers in Stockholm, for example, are working on what is being touted as the strongest biomaterial ever produced. Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots for personal and commercial use. While we’re yet to see robot assistants in every home, technological advances have made robots increasingly complex and sophisticated. They are used in fields as wide-ranging as manufacturing, health and safety, and human assistance. 3D printing allows manufacturing businesses to print their own parts, with less tooling, at a lower cost, and faster than via traditional processes. Plus, designs can be customized to ensure a perfect fit. 13 Innovative materials, including plastics, metal alloys, and biomaterials, promise to shake up sectors including manufacturing, renewable energy, construction, and healthcare. The IoT describes the idea of everyday items — from medical wearables that monitor users’ physical condition to cars and tracking devices inserted into parcels — being connected to the internet and identifiable by other devices. A big plus for businesses is that they can collect customer data from constantly connected products, allowing them to better gauge how customers use products and tailor marketing campaigns accordingly. There are also many industrial applications, such as farmers putting IoT sensors into fields to monitor soil attributes and inform decisions such as when to fertilize. Energy capture, storage, and transmission represent a growing market sector, spurred by the falling cost of renewable energy technologies and improvements in battery storage capacity. Activity: 1. List down the scientific discoveries and technological breakthroughs in each period. You may conduct additional researches and share what you have found in the class. a. Ancient Times to 600 BC __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ b. Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD) __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ c. Islamic Golden Age __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ d. Ancient China and the Far East __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ 14 e. Renaissance __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ f. Enlightenment Period __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ g. Industrial Revolution __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ h. 20th century __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ i. Fourth Industrial Revolution __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ 2. If given a chance to live back in time and considering the influence of science and technology in the society and the environment, which period would you choose and why? Would you prefer a less technologically driven society or you wouldn’t trade the comforts of modern life? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ 15 Assignment: Film Viewing. 1. Watch the World’s Greatest Invention (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYYyfAl9Usc) and then answer the following guide questions. a. Among the mentioned greatest invention in the video, which do you think created the most impact in your life now? Why? ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ b. Name one invention and discuss how it transformed the society. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 2. Watch Stephen Colbert’s interview with Neil Tyson on YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXh9RQCvxmg&noredirect=1) and then answer the following guide questions. Guide Questions: 1. Stephen Colbert starts the interview by asking Dr. Neil de Grasse Tyson, “Is it better to know or not to know?” Ponder on this question and decide which one is better. Give as many reasons as to why. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 16 2. Enumerate the various statements that Dr. Neil de Grasse Tyson said about the importance of science literacy and its relationship to society. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 17 C. Historical Development of Science and Technology in the Philippines The current state of science and technology in the country can be traced back to its historical development and the latent events that helped shape it since the pre-colonial period to contemporary time. What we have or lack today in terms of science and technology is very much an effect of the government policies that had been enacted by past public officials in trying to develop a technological society that is responsive to the needs of time. Pre-Spanish Era. There is not much written about the Philippines during pre-colonial time but analysis from archeological artifacts revealed that the first inhabitants in the archipelago who settled in Palawan and Batangas around 40 000 years ago have made simple tools or weapons of stone which eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and polishing hard stones. This very primitive technology was brought by primal needs of survival by hunting wild animals and gathering fruits and vegetables in the forest. They learned that by polishing hard stones, they can develop sharp objects that are useful in their day to day activities. From this early, we can see that technology was developed because of a great necessity. Still on its primitive state, the first inhabitants in the country are learning what can be harnessed from the environment. They have come to understand that when clay is mixed with 2 water and then shaped into something before sun drying, it hardens to an object that can also be useful to them. And because clay is moldable, it can be shaped into various objects. As the early Filipinos flourished, they have learned how to extract, smelt and refine metals like copper, gold, bronze and iron from nature and consequently fashion them into tools and implements. At this point, the inhabitants of the country are showing a deeper understanding of their nature because they were able to obtain valuable resources from nature. As the inhabitants shifted from wandering from one place to another and learned to settle in areas near the water source, they also learned how to weave cotton, engaged themselves in agriculture and are knowledgeable on building boats for coastal trade. From the above mentioned facts, it can be concluded that primitive Filipinos are practicing science and technology in their everyday lives. The ancient crafts of stone carving, pottery and smelting of metals involves a lot of science, which is understanding the nature of matter involved. The ingenuity of the Ifugaos in building the Banaue Rice Terraces The smelting of metals exhibited the primitive Filipino’s knowledge on the composition of alloy and the optimum temperature that will produce the metal with acceptable tensile strength. All in all, the primitive Filipinos were living in perfect harmony with nature and they obtain from it what is just needed in their everyday life through a very simple science of understanding how mother nature operates 18 Spanish Colonial Era. As claimed by Caoili (1983), the beginnings of modern science and technology in the country can be traced back to the Spanish regime because they established schools, hospitals and started scientific research that had important consequences in the development of the country. These schools, which are mostly run by Spanish friars, formed the first Filipino professionals. The The 3 highest institution of learning during this time was the Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas. But the very strict hold of the church among citizens and its intervention and meddling to the government propelled by fear of intellectual awakening among Filipinos have greatly hindered the progress of these professionals to further enhance their knowledge, conduct scientific investigations and contribute to the advancement of society. But a few of persistent Filipino scientists succeeded by educating themselves abroad. One notable example of course is our national hero, the great Dr. Jose P. Rizal. Dr. Jose Rizal is the epitome of the Renaissance man in the Philippine context. He is a scientist, a doctor, an engineer (he designed and built a water system in Dapitan), a journalist, a novelist, an urban planner and a hero. Being a doctor and scientist, he had extensive knowledge on medicine and was able to operate his mother’s blinding eye. When he was deported in Dapitan, his knowledge on science and engineering was translated into technology by creating a water system that improved the sanitation of households in the area. Dr. Jose Dr. Jose Rizal was a brilliant man and his life stood out among his contemporaries. But it cannot be said that there is no contribution to science and technology among the Filipino men and women during the Spanish era. The charity hospitals became the breeding ground for scientific researches on pharmacy and medicine, with great focus on problems of infectious diseases, their causes and possible remedies. And in 1887, the Laboratorio Municipal de Ciudad de Manila was created and whose functions were to conduct biochemical analyses for public health and to undertake specimen examinations for clinical and medico-legal cases. Its publication, probably the first scientific journal in the country was titled Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas showed the studies undertaken during that time. As the colonization of the Spaniards lengthened, they began to exploit the natural resources of the country through agriculture, mining of metals and minerals and establishing various kinds of industries to further promote economic growth. As such, scientific research on these fields were encouraged by the government. By the nineteenth century, Manila has become a cosmopolitan center and modern amenities were introduced to the city. However, little is known about the accomplishments of scientific bodies commissioned by the Spanish government during this time. Because of limited scientific research and its consequent translation to technology during the Spanish regime, none of the industries prosper. The Philippines had evolved into a primary agricultural exporting economy, and this is not because of the researches undertaken on 19 this field, but was largely because of the influx of foreign capital and technology which brought modernization of some sectors, notably sugar and hemp production. American Period If the development in science and technology was very slow during the Spanish regime, the Philippines saw a rapid growth during the American occupation and was made possible by the government’s extensive public education system from elementary to tertiary schools. The establishment of various public tertiary schools like the Philippine Normal School and University of the Philippines provided the needs for professionally trained Filipinos in building the government’s organization and programs. The growth and application of science were still concentrated on the health sector in the form of biochemical analyses in hospitals. The government supported basic and applied research in the medical, agricultural and related sciences. The University of the Philippines Los Baños opened the College of Agriculture in 1909 while the University of the Philippines – Diliman opened the Colleges of Arts, Engineering and Veterinary Medicine in 1910. The College of Medicine was opened four years later. During this time, there were already quite a number of qualified Filipino physicians who held teaching positions in the College of Medicine, whereas most of the early instructors and professors in other colleges such as in the sciences and engineering were Americans and foreigners. Capacity building programs that include sending qualified Filipinos abroad for advanced training were conducted to eventually fill up the teaching positions in Philippine universities. Moreover, the American colonial government sent Filipino youths to be educated as teachers, engineers, physicians and lawyers in American colleges to further capacitate the Filipinos in various fields. However, there was difficulty in recruiting students for science and technology courses like veterinary medicine, engineering, agriculture, applied sciences and industrial-vocational courses. The enrollment in these courses were dismal that the government had to offer scholarships to attract students. The unpopularity of these courses stemmed from the Filipinos’ disdain toward manual work that developed from the 400 years under Spanish colonization. The Filipinos then prefer prestigious professions at that time like priesthood, law and medicine. The government provided more support for the development of science and created the Bureau of Government Laboratories in and was later changed to Bureau of Science. It was composed of a biological laboratory, chemical laboratory, serum laboratory for the production of virus vaccine, serums and prophylactics, and a library. The bureau was initially managed by American senior scientists but as more Filipinos were trained and acquire the necessary knowledge and skills, they eventually took over their positions. The Bureau of Science served as the primary training ground for Filipino scientists and paved the way for pioneering scientific research, most especially on the study of various tropical diseases that were prevalent during those times like leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria and beri-beri. Another great contribution of the Bureau of Science to the development of science and technology in the country was the publication of the 20 Philippine Journal of Science. This scientific journal published researches done in local laboratories and reported global scientific developments that had relevance to the Philippine society. The Bureau of Science became the primary research center of the Philippines until World War II. Lastly, on December 8, 1933, the National Research Council of the Philippines was established. Commonwealth Period When the Americans granted independence and the Commonwealth government was established, the Filipinos were busy in working towards economic reliance but acknowledge the importance and vital role of science and technology for the economic development of the country by declaring that “The State shall promote scientific research and invention…” The short-lived Commonwealth Government was succeeded by the Japanese occupation when the Pacific war broke out in 1941. The prevailing situations during the time of Commonwealth period to the Japanese regime had made developments in science and technology practically impossible. This is also true when World War II ended and left Manila, the country’s capital, in ruins. The government had to rebuild again and normalize the operations in the whole country. Science and Technology since Independence In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of Science and was placed under the Office of the President of the Philippines. However, the agency faced lack of financial support from the government and experienced planning and coordination problems. In a report by the US Economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950, there is a lack of basic information which were necessities to the country's industries, lack of support of experimental work and minimal budget for scientific research and low salaries of scientists employed by the government. In 1958, during the regime of President Carlos P. Garcia, the Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958 which established the National Science Development Board (NSDB). The Philippine government focused on science and technology institutional capacity-building which were undertaken by establishing infrastructure-support facilities such as new research agencies and development trainings. However good these projects were, it produced insignificant effects because of lack of coordination and planning, specifically technology planning, between concerned agencies which hindered them from performing their assigned functions effectively. This was aptly illustrated in the unplanned activities of the researchers within the agencies. Most areas of research were naively left to the discretion of the researchers under the assumption that they were working for the interests of the country. They were instructed to look for technologies and scientific studies with good commercialization potential. Without clear research policy guidelines, researches were done for their own sake, leaving to chance the commercialization of the results. 21 Likewise, during this time, rebuilding the country involved establishing more state funded manual and trading schools which would eventually become the current state universities and colleges. The trade schools produced craftsmen, tradesmen and technicians that helped in shaping a more technological Philippines while still being an agricultural based nation. Eventually, when these trade schools were elevated to college and university status, they produced much of the country’s professionals, although there was a great disparity on the low proportion of those in agriculture, medical and natural sciences with those from teacher training and commerce/business administration courses which had higher number of graduates. The increase in the number of graduates led to the rise of professional organizations of scientists and engineers. These organizations were formed to promote professional interests and create and monitor the standards of practice. As summarized by Caoili, “There has been little innovation in the education and training of scientists and engineers since independence in 1946. This is in part due to the conservative nature of self-regulation by the professional associations. Because of specialized training, vertical organizations by disciplines and lack of liaison between professions, professional associations have been unable to perceive the dynamic relationship between science, technology and society and the relevance of their training to Philippine conditions. Science and Technology in the 1960s to 1990s During these years, the government gave greater importance to science and technology. The government declared in Section 9(1) of the 1973 Philippine Constitution that the “advancement of science and technology shall have priority in the national development.” On April 6, 1968, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos proclaimed the 35-hectare land in Bicutan, Taguig as the site of the Philippine Science Community. Then in 1969, the government provided funds to private universities to encourage them to conduct research and create courses in science and technology. The government also conducted seminars for public and private high school and college science teachers, training programs and scholarships for graduate and undergraduate science scholars, and workshops on fisheries and oceanography. In the 1970s, focus on science and technology was given to applied research and the main objective was to generate products and processes that were supposed to have a greater beneficial impact to the society. Relative to this, several research institutes were established under the National Science Development Board (NSDB) which includes the Philippine Coconut Research Institute and Philippine Textile Research Institute. Moreover, the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission, another agency under NSDB, explored the uses of atomic energy for economic development. To prepare the pool of scientists who will work on Philippine Atomic Commission, Pres. Marcos assisted 107 22 institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work by sending scientists abroad to study nuclear science and technology, and providing basic training to 482 scientists, doctors, engineers and technicians. Then in 1972, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 4, the National Grains Authority was created and it was tasked to improve the rice and corn industry and thereby help in the economic development of the country. This was followed by the creation of Philippine Council for Agricultural Research to support the progressive development of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the country. The Marcos administration also established the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration (PAGASA) under the Department of National Defense to provide environmental protection and to utilize scientific knowledge to ensure the safety of the people through Presidential Decree No. 78, s. 1972. On the following year, the Philippine National Oil Company was created by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 334, s. 1973, to promote industrial and economic development through effective and efficient use of energy sources. To strengthen the scientific culture in the country, the National Academy of Science and Technology was established under Presidential Decree No. 1003-A, s. 1976. The National Academy of Science and Technology was composed of scientists with “innovative achievement in the basic and applied sciences” who will serve as the reservoir of scientific and technological expertise for the country. In the 1980s, science and technology was still focused on applied research. In 1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) composed of four research and development Councils;; Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD);; Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research Development (PCIERD);; Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD) and the National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP). NSTA has also eight research and development institutes and support agencies under it. These are actually the former organic and attached agencies of NSDB which have themselves been reorganized. The expanding number of science agencies has given rise to a demand for high calibre scientists and engineers to undertake research and staff universities and colleges. Hence, measures have also been taken towards the improvement of the country’s science and manpower. In March 1983, Executive Order No. 889 was issued by the President which provided for the establishment of a national network of centers of excellence in basic sciences. As a consequence, six new institutes were created: The National Institutes of Physics, Geological Sciences, Natural Sciences Research, Chemistry, Biology and Mathematical Sciences. Related to this efforts was the establishment of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service by Presidential Decree No. 901 on 19 July 1983. This is designed to attract more qualified scientists to work in government and encourage young people to pursue science degrees and careers. In 1986, under the Aquino administration, the National Science and Technology Authority was replaced by the Department of Science and Technology, giving science and technology a representation in the cabinet. Under the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan for the years 1987-1992, science and technology's role in economic recovery and sustained economic growth was highlighted. In this period, science and 23 technology was one of the top three priorities of the government towards economic recovery. With the agency's elevation to full cabinet stature by virtue of Executive Order 128 signed on 30 January 1987, the functions and responsibilities of DOST expanded correspondingly to include the following: (1) Pursue the declared state policy of supporting local scientific and technological effort;; (2) Develop local capability to achieve technological self-reliance;; (3) Encourage greater private sector participation in research and development. moreover, funding for the science and technology sector was tripled from 464 million in 1986 to 1.7 billion in 1992. The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the premiere science and technology body in the country charged with the twin mandate of providing central direction, leadership and coordination of all scientific and technological activities, and of formulating policies, programs and projects to support national development. The Science and Technology Master Plan was formulated which aimed at the modernization of the production sector, upgrading research activities, and development of infrastructure for science and technological purposes. A Research and Development Plan was also formulated to examine and determine which areas of research needed attention and must be given priority. The criteria for identifying the program to be pursued were, development of local materials, probability of success, potential of product in the export market, and the its strategic nature. The grants for the research and development programs was included in the Omnibus Investment Law. During President Fidel Ramos’s term, there was a significant increase in personnel specializing in the science and technology field. In 1998, there was an estimated 3,000 competent scientists and engineers in the Philippines. Adding to the increase of scientists would be the result of the two newly built Philippine Science High Schools in Visayas and Mindanao which promotes further development of young kids through advance S&T curriculum. The government provided 3,500 scholarships for students who were taking up professions related to S&T. Priority for S&T personnel increased when Magna Carta for Science and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439) was established. The award was published in order to give incentives and rewards for people who have been influential in the field of S&T. Still under the Ramos administration, DOST established the “Science and Technology Agenda for National Development (STAND)”, a program that was significant to the field of S&T. It identified seven export products, 11 domestic needs, three other supporting industries, and the coconut industry as priority investment areas. The seven identified export products were computer software;; fashion accessories;; gifts, toys, and houseware;; marine products;; metal fabrications;; furniture;; and dried fruits. The domestic needs identified were food, housing, health, clothing, transportation, communication, disaster mitigation, defense, environment, manpower development, and energy. Three additional support industries were included in the list of priority sectors, namely, packaging, chemicals, and metals because of their linkages with the above sectors. 24 In the Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo administration, numerous laws and projects were implemented which concerns both the environment and science to push technology as a tool to increase the country’s economic level. This is to help increase the productivity from Science, Technology and Innovations (STI) and help benefit the poor people. Moreover, the term “Filipinnovation” was the coined term used in helping the Philippines to be an innovation hub in Asia. The STI was developed further by strengthening the schools and education system such as the Philippine Science High School (PSHS), which focuses in science, technology and mathematics in their curriculum. This helps schools produce get more involve in this sector. Private sectors were also encouraged to participate in developing the schools through organizing events and sponsorships. Future Filipino scientists and innovators can be produced through this system. Recently, the Philippines ranked 73rd out of 128 economies in terms of Science and Technology and Innovation (STI) index, citing the country’s strength in research and commercialization of STI ideas (DOST, 2018). However, a study by the Philippine Institute for Development Studies highlighted the weak ties between innovation-driven firms and the government, and it also identified the country’s low expenditure in research and development (R&D). This is the reason the government is now extending all its efforts to reach out with the private sector, explaining that STI plays an important role in economic and social progress and is a key driver for a long-term growth of an economy. Technology adoption allows a country’s firms and citizens to benefit from innovations created in other countries, and allows it to catch up and even leap-frog obsolete technologies. Technology adoption, the official said, allows a country’s firms and citizens to benefit from innovations created in other countries, and allows it to catch up and even leap-frog obsolete technologies. Hopes in Philippine Science and Technology Despite the many inadequacies, from funding to human capital, there are some science and technology-intensive research and capacity-building projects which resulted in products which are currently being used successfully and benefits the society. One of these is the micro-satellite. In April 2016, the country launched into space its first micro-satellite called Diwata-1. It was designed, developed and assembled by Filipino researchers and engineers under the guidance of Japanese experts. The Diwata (deity in English) satellite provides real-time, high-resolution and multi-color infrared images for various applications, including meteorological imaging, crop and ocean productivity measurement and high-resolution imaging of natural and man-made features. It enables a more precise estimate of the country’s agricultural production, provides images of watersheds and floodplains for a better understanding of water available for irrigation, power and domestic consumption. The satellite also provides accurate information on any disturbance and degradation of forest and upland areas. 25 The country also has the Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards (NOAH), which uses the Lidar (light detection and ranging) technology. Project NOAH was initiated in June 2012 to help manage risks associated with natural hazards and disasters. The project developed hydromet sensors and high-resolution geo-hazard maps, which were generated by light detection and ranging technology for flood modeling. Noah helps the government in providing timely warning with a lead time of at least six hours in the wake of impending floods. The country is now training the Cambodians on this technology,

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